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Biology Chapter 5
5A, 5B, 5C, 5D, 5E
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| heterotroph | have to consume other organisms or their products to obtain organic molecules. These organic molecules provide chemical energy to the animal to be able to live, survive, and reproduce. |
| organic molecules | include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals |
| Carbohydrates | Provide a source of immediate energy |
| Lipids (such as fats) | Energy storage in animals |
| Proteins | Structural components of cells, cell receptors, enzymes |
| Vitamins | While required in small amounts, many vitamins are used to make enzymes |
| Minerals | While required in small amounts, minerals are used in many structural components of organisms |
| . Digestion | the breakdown of large food molecules into smaller forms that can cross plasma membranes and be used by the body. |
| digestive system | the collection of specialised tissues and organs responsible for the digestion of food and absorption of nutrients |
| two methods of food digestion | Physical (or mechanical) digestion, Chemical digestion |
| Physical (or mechanical) digestion | to be absorbed, food must first be broken into smaller pieces as smaller pieces provide a large SA Physical digestion describes the processes whereby the mechanical movement of organs and tissues causes this breakdown |
| Physical (or mechanical) digestion examples | include chewing, muscle contractions, and the stirring of food and digestive juices by muscle movements. |
| Chemical digestion | undergo chemical digestion by enzymes and stomach acid, producing smaller molecules that are capable of being absorbed. Most digestive enzymes split food molecules in hydrolysis reactions, by adding water molecules. |
| Chemical digestion examples | The three major types of digestive enzymes are amylases (which act on carbohydrates), proteases (proteins), and lipases (lipids). |
| 4 steps of digestion | Ingestion, digestion, absorption and elimination |
| Ingestion | the first step of the process is when food is taken into the body. the teeth physically break down food into smaller pieces, whilst enzymes in the saliva chemically break down the food pieces into a soft mass that can be swallowed. |
| Digestion | occurs along the digestive tract, where the soft mass travels from the mouth into the body of the organism and continues to be broken down both physically and chemically by a variety of organs. |
| Absorption | once the food macromolecules are broken down into smaller molecules, they are absorbed across the plasma membrane of cells in the digestive tract into the bloodstream. It is here when the energy from food is ready to be used by the body |
| Elimination/egestion | the final step is the elimination of undigested food content that has travelled along the digestive tract and has not been absorbed. Undigested food is eliminated from the body as faeces. |
| 1. Oral Cavity | Teeth mechanically break food into small pieces, digestive amylase enzymes in saliva breakdown carbohydrates, and lipase enzymes in the mouth start the breakdown of fats. The chewing of food occurs here. The pH of the mouth ranges from 6-8 |
| 2. Salivary Glands | Glands that produce and release saliva into the mouth and oesophagus |
| 3. Oesophagus | A hollow tube connecting the oral cavity to the stomach which food travels down after being swallowed. Saliva continues to mix with the food. The movement of the food is aided by waves of muscular contractions of the tube, known as peristalsis. |
| peristalsis | coordinated wave like muscular contractions and relaxations of the digestive tract wall that move food along the system |
| 4. Stomach | temporary storage where food is mixed via muscular churning. Protease enzymes are secreted by the stomach and begin the digestion of protein Digestive juices are released by the stomach membrane, which creates an acidic environment of pH 1–3. |
| what leaves the stomach? | Peristalsis of the stomach muscles helps push food along to the small intestine. Partially digested food that leaves the stomach is known as chyme. |
| 5. Liver | The liver is the site of bile production also regulates metabolism, toxin removal, and processing nutrients. The liver stores excess glucose in the form of glycogen, which can be converted back to glucose when needed for energy. |
| bile | Bile is important in the physical breakdown of fats – smaller fat particles are then more readily broken down by lipase enzymes |
| 6. Gallbladder | After being produced in the liver, bile is stored and further concentrated in the gallbladder before it is released into the small intestine. |
| 7. Pancreas | Digestive enzymes are produced in the pancreas and are released when food reaches the first part of the small intestine. The pancreas also regulates blood sugar levels |
| 8. Small intestine | absorbs nutrients from food. Enzymes produced in the small intestine, enzymes from the pancreas, and bile from the gallbladder aid the breakdown of food in chyme. Continued breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins and majority of fat breakdown. |
| 3 divisions of the small intestine | the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum |
| what happens after nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine | The cells lining the small intestine absorb nutrients and certain waste products of digestion and deliver them to the circulatory system |
| 9. Large intestine | The final absorption of water, vitamins, and minerals occurs in the large intestine As water is reabsorbed from undigested food, food becomes more solid and compact, eventually turning into faeces ready for egestion. |
| 10. Appendix | Sits at the junction between the small and large intestines and is believed to play a role in immune functions. |
| 11. Rectum | Final area of the large intestine that stores faeces for elimination. |
| 12. Anus | The end of the digestive tract where faeces are expelled from the body |
| villi | finger like projections from the surfce of membraneous structures to increase teh surface area |
| microvillius | microscopic projections on the surface of cells that increase cellular SA |
| herbivore | an animal that almost exclusively feeds on plant material |
| omnivore | an animal that eats a variety of food from plants to other animals |
| carnivore | an animal that almost exclusively eats meat |
| omnivores digestive systme | have lots of microorganisms living along their digestive tract known as gut microbiota, digestion is aided by the microbiota’s fermentation and breakdown of undigested food. |
| omnivores teeth | have a combination of both sharp and blunt teeth that reflect a diet that is both animal and plant-based |
| omnivores digestive system breakdown | In humans, you can see that food travels from the stomach to the tightly folded small intestine, before travelling through the large intestine prior to elimination. |
| Carnivores digetsive system | simple overall. contain gut microbiota, as meat is easy to digest they have short digestive tracts. |
| carnivores teeth | They have sharp teeth, including large canine teeth, that rip and tear flesh off prey, and their jaws chew up and down. |
| Herbivores digestive tract | plant matter is harder to digest due to cellulose(cell walls) being long and difficult. This is why herbivores have much longer digestive systems and far greater concentrations of gut microbiota compared to carnivores and omnivores. |
| Herbivores fermentation | have a fermentation site within their digestive system that contains an extremely high concentration of microbiota and is responsible for massive amounts of fermentation that aids digestion. |
| two distinct types of herbivore digestive systems: | hindgut fermenters (single chambered stomachs) and foregut fermenters. (multi chambered stomach) |
| herbivores teeth | large flat teeth and their jaws move side to side which allows them to grind their food. |
| multicellular organisms process | as it increases in size and complexity, greater cooperation and coordination of cells is requires to survive and cells begin to arrange into 4 differnent levels of increasing complexity |
| what are these 4 layers | cells, tissues, organs, system |
| vascular plants require | contains vascular tissue which is repsosnible for transporting water and minerals through the plant |
| non vascular plants | eg moss, does not contain vascular tissue and only require simplified tissues to function |
| vascular plants cells | specialized cells carry out specific fucntions such as the transport of nutrients and water and acquiring energy via photosysthesis |
| major types of vascular plant cells | parenchyma cells (photosynthesis), Sclerenchyma cells (provided support), collenchyma cells (support) Xylem cells and Phloem cells |
| Xylem cells | Cells of the xylem are responsible for the transport of water and minerals from the roots to the leaves of the plant. |
| Phloem cells | Cells of the phloem are responsible for the transport of sugars and other nutrients throughout the plant. |
| plant tissues | dermal tissue (covers the outside of the plant that secretes a cuticle to form a barrier) and ground tissue which makes up the anterior of the plant and carry out metabolic functions |
| organs of vascular plants | leaves, flowers, fruits, stems, roots, |
| Plant systems | vascular plants have two major systems, the root system and the shoot system |
| root system | typically underground, organ system in plants that is responsible for providing support to the plant and water and nutrient absorption from soil |
| shoot system | organ system in plants made up of reproductive organs(flowers and fruit) , stems, and leaves (non reproductive |
| what tissue types are in the root and shoot systems | are composed of the three plant tissue types: dermal, ground, and vascular tissues which are xylem tissue and phloem tissue |
| xylem tissue | transports water and minerals in one direction, from the roots to the leaves |
| phloem tissue | transports sugars and other nutrients in two directions, to all the cells of the plant |
| dicots | includes eucalypts, fruit trees, and roses, the vascular tissues are located in vascular bundles in the centre of roots and just below the bark of stems and trunks, In leaves, vascular bundles branch out and you can see them as ‘veins’ |
| vascular bundles | the close arrangement of xylem and phloem tissues |
| how do roots provided stability and support | the roots act as an ‘anchor’ in the ground, preventing the plant from toppling over during strong winds. |
| How do roots absorb water and nutrients from the soil | diffusion occurs faster with high SA:V, root system has many different branches which increase SA for absorption. Additionally, root hair cells have finger-like projections which extend outwards, further increasing the surface area of roots |
| root hair cell | a cell with hair-like extensions that absorbs water and minerals from the soil into the root |
| the composition of root hair cells | xylem is in the middle and phloem on the outiside |
| two different pathways of water and nutrient absorption in roots | extracellular pathway and the cytoplasmic pathway |
| extracellular pathway (apoplastic route) | the pathway by which roots absorb the majority of water from the soil. |
| extracellular pathway process | water diffuse into the roots in the gaps between cells. Once the water reaches the hydrophobic Casparian strip, the water and solutes are forced to enter cells, so plasma membranes can selectively transport specific substances into the xylem. |
| cytoplasmic pathway (symplastic route) | the pathway by which roots absorb the majority of nutrients and essential minerals from the soil. |
| cytoplasmic pathway process | mineral ions either passively diffuse into the cytoplasm or taken up via active transport in root hair cells,then the concentration of ions within the cytoplasm is often 100x greater than the concentration of similar ions in the groundwater and soil |
| Casparian strip | the impermeable barrier between the root cells and vascular tissue that forces water and solutes travelling by the extracellular pathway into the cytoplasm of cells |
| structure of the xylem | Xylem tissue is composed of long, skinny tubes that run from the roots to the shoots of plants. The tubes are made from two cell types: vessel elements and tracheids |
| The three common characteristics of vessel elements and tracheids are: | hollow cells/dead lignified cells, cell wall becomes strengthened with woody lignin deposits pits between vessel elements and tracheids – these allow water to flow horizontally within the xylem. |
| The differences between the vessel elements and tracheids are: | size – vessel elements larger than tracheids. arrangement – the join end-to-end, forming a tube that allows water to flow vertically through the xylem. Meanwhile, the tracheids have tapered ends that overlap, meaning water must travel horizontally |
| Structure of the phloem | Phloem tissue is also composed of long, skinny tubes that run throughout a plant. It is made of two types of non-lignified living cells: sieve cells and companion cells |
| Key characteristics of sieve cells include: | hollow cells tube-like structure ,cells join end-to-end, water to flow vertically sieve plates –porous plates that connect stacked sieve cells pits between sieve cells –horizontal tubes form between adjacent sieve cells, water flows horizontally |
| composition of phloem | Companion cells are next to sieve cells. They regulate the entry of nutrients into the phloem and perform functions to keep themselves and sieve cells alive. |
| where does majority of water go from the xylem | about 1% is usee during photosyntheis, the majority of the remaining water evaporates and exits a leaf via the stomata during gas exchange which involves the release of oxyegn and the uptake of carbon dioxide |
| transpiration | the movement of water up the xylem and its exit via the stomata, a pasisve process, helps regulate heat and water balance, distributes nutrients throughout the plant and prevent wilting and call damage |
| how does transpiration work? | when water evaporates from the leaf and exits through the stomata, the air pressure in the leaf becomes lower than the pressure in the roots, this low pressure creates a force that draws water up from the xylem (like a straw) |
| capillary action | caused by the adhesion of water molecules to the surface of the xylem, when a liquid such as water flows in narrow tubes sue to the ahesion of the liquid to the surface of the tube, in small tubes this force is strong enough to pull the water up |
| translocation | the movemnt of nutreints created in the leaves to other areas of the plant that stakes place in the phloem (source and sink movement) |
| translocation of glucose in the phloem steps: | 1. glucose produced in leaf cell (source), pumped in companion cells, they diffuse into the seive cells of the phloem 2. increased concentration in teh sieve cells causes water to diffuse in from teh xylem, increasing turgor pressure in the sieve cells |
| translocation of glucose in the phloem steps cont : | 2. the increase in pressure pushes the liquid in the phloem throughout the plant where glucose will be actively transported into the sinks 4. once glucose is unloaded into sink cells, concentrtion in the phloem reduced, water diffuses back into the xylem |
| why does transpiration need to regulated? | Water vapour is lost by plants during transpiration. a significant and dangerous avenue of water loss. Water loss leads to high solute concentrations and a reduction in turgidity, which in turn can damage the plant or cause it to wilt |
| Environmental conditions that affect transpiration rates include pt 1: | higher temps, more water evaporates from the leaves high light conditions, stomata open, increase, CO2 absorbed, increasing water lost to transpiration. humidity increases, water cannot evaporate at all and transpiration cannot occur. |
| Environmental conditions that affect transpiration rates include pt 2: | On windy days, humid layer is blown away, encouraging water vapour to exit the leaf. water availability high, roots absorb more water, afford to increase the rate of transpiration |
| guard cell | a pair of curved cells that surround a stoma. When hot they lose turgor pressure and become flaccid, closing the stomata to limit water loss |
| guard cell role | Two guard cells that surround the stomatal pore regulate the opening and closing of stomata. Stomata allow a plant to exchange gases with the environment. The main gases exchanged with the environment are CO2, O2, and H2O. |
| stomatal pore | the opening in the centre of a turgid stoma, where gases freely enter or exit a leaf |
| what happens when stomatas are open: | When stomata are open, water vapour can freely leave the leaf as part of transpiration, CO2 can freely enter the leaf as an input of photosynthesis, and O2 can exit the leaf after it is produced during photosynthesis. |
| what happens when stomatas are closed | ases cannot freely leave or enter a leaf, thereby reducing the rate of photosynthesis, transpiration, and water loss. |
| To increase the rate of transpiration, plants: | actively pump potassium ions into guard cells, increases concentration water diffuses into the guard cells via osmosis,causes vacuoles to increase in size, becomes turgid turgid guard cells are shaped like beans, which leaves the stomata open. |
| To reduce the rate of transpiration, plants: | actively pump potassium ions out of guard cells • water then diffuses out of the vacuoles and guard cells • each guard cell becomes flaccid, closing the stomata |
| kidneys | The role of the kidneys is to filter blood, reabsorb the useful substances within the filtrate, and secrete the unwanted one |
| nephron | a functional unit of the kidney consisting of a glomerulus and tubule system through which filtrate passes and urine is produced |
| Nephron structure pt 1 | the capillaries from the renal artery bunch together, form the glomerulus inside the Bowman’s capsule-connects to a long tube composed of the proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, the distal convoluted tubule, and the collecting duct. |
| division of teh nephron | kidney has two distinct regions: the cortexand the medulla, The glomerulus, proximal convoluted tubule, and distal convoluted tubule are located in the cortex, while the loop of Henle and collecting duct are in the medulla. |
| bowmans capsule function | filtration, high pressure of blood in the glomerular blood vessels forces fluid through the walls of glomerular capillaries and into the Bowman’s capsule. |
| Proximal convoluted tubule function | Reabsorption: ions, amino acids, water, glucose (reabsorbed into the capillaries by active transport) Secretion: ammonia, toxins |
| Loop of Henle function | ascending limb acyively pumps ions out of the tubule, making the surrouding tissue highly concentrated so water exits the descending limb via osmosis and ions diffuse into teh tubule down the concentration gradient, |
| Distal convoluted tubule function | Optional reabsorption: ions, water Secretion: ions, toxins, Fine-tunes the composition of filtrate according to the body’s requirements. |
| Collecting duct function | Optional reabsorption: water Secretion: urea, ions, ammonia, toxins, Further fine-tunes filtrate composition. |
| how do cells comunicate | To communicate, cells send and receive special chemicals called signalling molecules. Signalling molecules can instruct cells to do a variety of things such as alter gene expression, open and close protein channels, release signalling molecules, die etc |
| One of the most important groups of signalling molecules | hormone a signalling molecule released from endocrine glands that regulates the growth or activity of target cells |
| hormone molecules function | by binding to specific receptors on target cells that are complementery to the hormones. eliciting a response in the target cells, therfore homronal communication is specific |
| endocrine system | the collection of glands in aniamls responsible for producing hormones that can be transported in the blood stream to regulate distant organs/cells |
| organs of the endocrine system | hypothalamus, piyuary gland, pineal gland, thyroid and parathyroid glands, thymus, pancreas, adrenal glands, placenta, overies |
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