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MP3 Test
AP Psych
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| id | unconscious; present at birth; pleasure principle; made up of desires,instincts, and drives; wants immediate satisfaction |
| superego | the moral principle, begins to form around 1-2 years old when you receive punishments for bad behavior, both conscious & unconscious, made up of morals and sense of right/wrong, prevents id from getting you in trouble, causes guilt |
| ego | the reality principle, begins to form around 2-3 years old when you develop limited rational thought, conscious personality, considers wants (Id) and morals (superego) and makes a realistic decision based on capabilities |
| what is used to tap into unconscious personality | inkblot tests (form an image out of blobs), free association, TAT test (make up a story about an ambiguous scene) |
| defense mechanisms | unconscious distortions in reality when our ego can't handle demands of id and superego |
| rationalization | making up excuses for behaviors that cause us anxiety to make ourselves feel better about our behaviors/decisions |
| repression (defense mechanism) | pushing painful memories that cause too much anxiety deep into the unconscious (ex. having no memory of abuse or a tragic accident) |
| denial | refusing to accept the reality of something, occurs often in addicts who tell others that they aren't addicted |
| reaction formation | replacing an unacceptable feeling or urge with its opposite feeling, you show the opposite of what you are actually feeling (ex. being overly nice when extremely angry) |
| projection | believe feelings you have for someone are actually coming from the person you have those feelings for (ex. accusing your friend of being jealous of you but you are actually jealous of her) |
| regression | going back to an earlier and less mature way of behaving in times of anxiety (ex. child starts sucking his thumb on the first day of kindergarten) |
| displacement | can't take your feelings out on the person you want to put them on so you place them on a less powerful person (ex. a man is angry at his boss but goes home and yells at his wife) |
| undoing | trying to make up for doing something bad by doing something that is good (ex. after getting in trouble with your parents you are overly nice and helpful) |
| sublimation | redirecting a forbidden desire into a socially acceptable desire (ex. a man redirects his anger onto a punching bag instead of another person) |
| memory | encoding, storage, and retrieval of what been learned, processed, or experienced |
| confabulation | filling in the gaps of our memory unconsciously |
| recognition | ability to identify an idea, object or situation whether you have personal experience with it or not; used for multiple choice questions or true/false |
| recall | active reconstruction of information; depends on reconstruction processes; a person's attitude, knowledge, and expectations help recall info, used for essays and short-answer questions |
| reconstructive process | altering memories that are simplified, enriched, or distorted because of personal experience, attitudes, or inferences (schemas) |
| schema | a plan for learning, affects how people recall events that have happened and specific details |
| misinformation effect | when witnesses are exposed to misleading information about an event, they are more likely to misremember what actually happened, created by Loftus |
| relearning | remembering how to do something after not doing it or knowing it for a while (ex. knowing how to ride a bike after learning as a kid) |
| repression (forgetting) | unconsciously blocking out a memory that is too emotional or traumatizing |
| decay | forgetting past events over time (ex. you don't remember most things from your childhood) |
| interference | when one memory blocks another/blocks you from remembering another |
| retroactive interference | new memory blocks an older one |
| proactive interference | old memory blocks a newer one |
| Ebbinghaus forgetting curve | explains how memory declines over time is there is no effort to retain information ("use it or lose it"), 50% of memory is lost within an hour, 70% is forgotten in 24 hours, you only retain 25% of information after the first week |
| sensory memory | our 5 senses hold info for under 3 seconds while we subconsciously decide if we want to pay attention to it |
| iconic sensory memory | processes visual inputs in the primary visual cortex |
| echoic sensory memory | processes audio inputs in the auditory cortex |
| short term memory | information that is held in your conscious mind at any given moment, can hold up to 7 unrelated items, lasts for 30 seconds without rehearsal |
| working memory | how we process and work with information we are taking into our mind, uses information stored in short term and long term memory (ex. reading a question using STM and recalling the answer to it based off of info in the LTM) |
| maintenance rehearsal | way to strengthen STM, continuously repeating info to remember it |
| chunking | way to strengthen STM, grouping together similar items and rehearsal of the groups/group components is needed |
| primacy recency | way to strengthen STM, information is easier to remember at the beginning or the end of a list (beginning is remembered through rehearsal, end is remembered through STM) |
| mnemonics | way to strengthen STM, shortening big ideas into acronyms or short phrases |
| long term memory | storage of information over extended or long periods of time, capacity is unlimited, can hold countless facts, experiences, and memories |
| long term potentiation | neurons strengthen connections with each other by repeating firings, explains why rehearsal and repetition of info helps us remember things |
| explicit LTM | memories you consciously remember, processed in hippocampus and frontal lobes |
| semantic explicit LTM | general knowledge we share with others (ex. history facts, language) |
| episodic explicit LTM | knowledge of your own life and memories (ex. your most recent vacation to the beach) |
| implicit LTM | memories you learned unintentionally, they are retrieved and established without effort (unconscious) |
| procedural implicit LTM | skill memory, doesn't require conscious recollection to remember it (ex. swimming, typing, writing) |
| retrospective implicit LTM | automatically remembering information from the past (ex. facts or specific events) |
| prospective implicit LTM | remembering to remember something in the future (ex. reminding yourself to remember to do psych homework when you get home while you are still in school) |
| mood congruent memory | it is easier to remember info if you are in the same emotional state you were in when you stored it |
| state dependent memory | easier to remember info if you are in the same physiological (physical/mental) state you were in when you stored it (ex. if you learn better while relaxed, you are more likely to be able to recall info when you are relaxed again) |
| context dependent memory | easier to remember info if you are in the place you were in when you stored that info |
| flashbulb memory | remembering vivid details of events that were shocking, emotional, or have serious consequences (ex. accident, finding out about a death) |
| self reference effect | we encode info that relates to us personally more efficiently and can retrieve it more easily than information that pertains to someone else |
| thinking | changing and rearranging info stored in memory in order to create new information |
| convergent thinking | logical thinking used to reach a goal (ex. math, answering questions) |
| divergent thinking | free flow of random thoughts (ex. daydreams, brainstorming) |
| metacognition | thinking about your thinking (ex. trying to figure out why you think the way you think/like the things you like) |
| image | mental picture of a specific object of event, not very specific and usually holds highlights of an original memory |
| symbol | sound or design that represents something else, helps us remember things that aren't present or represent our future |
| concept | uses a symbol as a label for a class of objects, people, or events that have one common attribute (ex. music note to represent music genres or a zoo to represent animal species) |
| prototype | representative example of a concept (ex. country is a prototype of music) |
| problem solving | braiding the gap between the present solution and the desired outcome |
| deductive reasoning | drawing logical, specific conclusions from general statements (big --> small) |
| inductive reasoning | drawing general conclusions from specific observations (small --> big) |
| algorithm | step by step procedure for solving problems, takes time but usually gets the right answer (ex. recipe , math problem) |
| heuristics | shortcuts to solving problems, less effective but takes less time, relies on intuition (ex. always filling up gas when there's 1/4 of a tank left) |
| availability heuristic | when you estimate the probability of something happening by using relevant/accessible instances (ex. Jaws causes you to think there are lots of sharks at the beach) |
| representative heuristic | when you determine the probability of an event based on how similar it is to the typical prototype (ex. basing your grade on a test off of the average score) |
| mental set | habitual strategy used to solve problems, becomes a problem when the strategy doesn't work in certain situations (ex. "I before e except after c", doesn't work for "weigh") |
| functional fixedness | when a person can't imagine new functions for familiar objects or can't think outside the box (sees objects/solutions as only working for their assigned role) |
| framing | the way a problem is posed, affects perceptions and decisions, the wording may cause people to have a different opinion/response (ex. 90% survival rate vs. 10% death rate) |
| confirmation bias | we look for info that supports our preexisting perceptions and ignore contradicting evidence |
| belief perseverance | holding onto a belief after it has been discredited or disproved by evidence (ex. belief in certain stereotypes) |
| hindsight bias | falsely claiming afterwards that you correctly predicted and event's outcome |
| overconfidence | overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements |
| language | set of spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning, can be acquired through observation and training |
| phonemes | short, distinctive sound units (ex. ba-ba) |
| morphemes | the smallest units of words that carry meaning (ex. pre- = before) |
| language | set of spoken, written, or signed words and the way we combine them to communicate meaning, can be acquired through observation and training |
| receptive language | the ability to understand what's being said both to and about us, occurs at 4 months |
| babbling | stage in speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language, begins at 4 months, making sounds attempting to mimic words |
| one word stage | occurs from ages 1-2 when a child speaks in mosy |
| phonemes | short, distinctive sound units (ex. ba-ba) |
| morphemes | the smallest units of words that carry meaning (ex. pre- = before) |
| grammar | a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others |
| receptive language | the ability to understand what's being said both to and about us, occurs at 4 months |
| babbling | stage in speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language, begins at 4 months, making sounds attempting to mimic words |
| one word stage | occurs from ages 1-2 when a child speaks in mostly single words to communicate an entire meaningful sentence |
| two word stage | beginning at age 2, when a child speaks in 2 word statements or uses telegraphic speech |
| telegraphic speech | early speech stage where a child speaks like a telegram (ex. "go car") using mostly nouns and verbs |
| BF Skinner's language theory | language is a product of learned associations though operant conditioning |
| Chomsky's language theory | humans are born with an innate knowledge of grammar and are hard wired for language learning |
| aphasia | a neurological impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's or Wernicke's area |
| authoritarian parenting | strict rules and tries to control children's behavior, forces kids to suppress emotion and become obedient, leads kids to grow up not knowing what they want |
| permissive parenting | always gives kids what they want and lots of freedom to do whatever they want, no rules causes kids to be unable to cope with conflict or control emotions |
| authoritative parenting | respect kids' needs but also believe that they need freedom with certain limits, enforce rules but listen to children's opinions, lots of support which allows kids to be persistent and pursue whatever they want |
| neglectful parenting | not present in children's lives, kids have full freedom to do what they want but never received support, feedback, love, or attention |
| over-involved parenting | present in every aspect of a child's life, "helicopter parenting", parents try to control and micromanage everything in their child's life |
| imprinting | created by Konrad Lorenz, responses made by newborn animals allowing them to form an attachment with the first person/animal they interact with (geese experiment) |
| critical period | time when babies/children are most able to develop and grow at their fullest potential |
| critical period for emotional development | 6 months (can distinguish the difference between people) - 3 years (develop object permanence/symbolic thought, know parents exist when they aren't there and can picture them in their head) |
| contact comfort | created by Harry Harlow, babies want someone physically close to them and to feel loved over meeting basic needs, comfort > needs (monkey experiment) |
| secure attachment | have sensitive and responsive caregivers, babies welcome parents when they return and aren't angry when they leave, caregivers met emotional & physical needs, nurture |
| insecure avoidant attachment | have unreliable parents, babies avoid/ignore their caregiver when they leave or return (caregivers provided no emotional support but met physical needs), nurture |
| anxious attachment | have unreliable parents who sometimes provide emotional needs and physical, babies are not upset when parent leaves and are angry when they return, nurture |
| temperament | an individual's innate style of emotionally responding to event and situations (nature, born with this) |
| easy temperament | calm, relaxed, sociable, active, handle change well |
| difficult/intense | irritable, can't adjust well to change |
| shy/slow to warm up | can adapt to change but needs time to adjust, normally reserved and shy |
| psychosocial development | theorized by Erik Erikson, believed that the need to socialize was equally as important as all other needs, believed all humans deal with a different conflict crisis depending on stage in life |
| trust vs mistrust | gained at 0-1 years old, if an infant is cared for they will learn to trust others and be able to form secure attachments; if basic needs aren't met they will learn not to rely or trust others |
| autonomy vs doubt | gained at 1-3 years old, children begin to learn and do things on their own (dressing, bathing, eating) & if they are praised they will develop independence; if only give attention when being criticized they'll doubt themselves |
| initiative vs guilt | occurs at 3-6 years old, children begin to make their own decisions, begin to experiment to see if rules are enforced & if praised/encouraged for good things they will think they're good at decision making; if criticizised they'll feel guilty |
| industry vs inferiority | occurs at 6-12 years old, children learn to function socially outside of their family in school & with others, if those who can socialize effective & are successful in tasks at school/home they will fee industrious, if not they will feel inferior |
| identity vs role confusion | occurs during adolescence, going through an "identity crisis" where a teen wants to figure out who they are and be their own person but also fit in with peers |
| intimacy vs isolation | occurs in early adulthood, torn between exploring options of the adult world and establishing a stable life (marriage, career) and emotional intimacy; if secure with themselves they will look for someone to share their life with |
| generativity vs stagnation | occurs in middle adulthood, generative - concerned about family and future generations, wants to help guide younger people, stagnate - self-absorbed, bitter, feel a lack of purpose and hung up on their past |
| integrity vs despair | occurs in older adulthood, people look back on their life with either satisfaction or despair |
| symbolic language | when we speak, we picture the object, event, or person we are talking about in our heads; the words represent something |
| meaningful language | one words is actually representing a concept (ex. when we hear the word "coffee" we think about the beverage and not just hear random words) |
| generative language | using a specific number of words to create endless sentences that we possibly have never heard before but still make sense |
| structured language | language has specific rules and concepts we have to follow in order to communicate our message clearly |
| comprehensive vocabulary | knowing what words mean/what they represent even if you aren't able to pronounce them |
| holophrases | one word that means more than that one word (ex. "potty" can mean "I need to go potty" or "look at the potty") |
| syntax processing | learning how to piece together vocab and grammar rules |
| babies can speak... | ...starting from birth but critical period for speech development is 5 years and older |
| maturation readiness | children have to be both physically and mentally ready to learn or accomplish a new task |
| abilities all newborns have | stare at bright colors, distinguish features and patterns, show pleasure/displeasure, grasping reflex, sucking reflex, rooting reflex (turn head when cheek is stroked) |
| scaffolding | begin working with other people who help us develop an understanding of something or a skill until we are gradually able to do it alone |
| cephalocaudal development theory | development starts at the top of the body and moves downward (ex. holding up head first, then chest, sitting up, standing, walking) |
| proximodistal development theory | physical development occurs inward then progresses outward (ex. babies stabilize neck and trunk first before moving hands and fingers) |
| memory consolidation theory | memories aren't stored instantly, instead the brain gradually converts short term memories into long term memories |
| why is forgetting important? | it allows us to clear out old information that we don't need anymore/isn't important |
| source amnesia | attributing to the wrong source an event we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined |
| receptive language | ability to understand what is said to and about you |
| productive language | the ability to pronounce words |
| ACE vs teratogen | and ACE occurs/happens to the child while they are alive, there a teratogen is something traumatizing that happens while they're in the womb (ex. physical child abuse vs. fetal alcohol syndrome) |
| general intelligence | Spearman's idea that there is one overall intelligence that has different factors that influence performance on cognitive tasks |
| imagination inflation | the increased likelihood that a person will judge an event has actually occured when they just imagined the event before making the judgement |
| standardization | the process of giving a test to a large representative group of people under the same conditions to establish norms and fairness, as well as eliminate confounding variables |
| validity | how well a test actually measures what it's supposed to measure and whether it will produce accurate conclusions |
| construct validity | the degree to which a test accurately assesses and underlying theoretical and often unobservable construct (ex. creativity) |
| gambler's fallacy | the mistaken belief that if a particular random event occurs more frequently than expected on a streak, it is less likely to happen the next time |
| predictive validity | the extent to which a score on a test predicts future performance, behavior, or outcomes |
| criterion validity | a measure of how well a test predicts the outcome by comparing it to an established standard |
| multiple intelligences | Gardener's idea that intelligence is a combination of 8 different intelligences, challenges the idea of an IQ |
| reliability | a test's ability to produce consistent results over time |
| test retest reliability | a measure of how consistent and stable a test's results are over time (ex. getting the same score on a test on Monday and Friday) |
| stereotype threat | when individuals fear they may confirm negative stereotypes about their social group |
| spotlight effect | the tendency to believe others are paying more attention to us than they really are (ex. thinking everyone is noticing the small stain on your shirt) |
| stereotype lift | when someone performs better on a task because a negative stereotypes exists about another group, you are not worried about being judged so you perform better (ex. "extroverts are better at presenting" and extroverted students do well) |
| Flynn effect | average IQ scores have increased over time due to improvements in education, environment, and living conditions |
| achievement test | type of test designed to measure a person's knowledge, skills, or proficiency in a specific subject or area, based on what they have learned (ex. math test) |
| aptitude test | intelligence test designed to measure a person's potential ability to learn or perform well on a task in the future (ex. SAT) |
| crystalized intelligence | the accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills acquired throughout life with education and past experiences |
| fluid intelligence | the ability to think logically, reason abstractly, and solve novel problems (thinking on your feet) |
| conjunction fallacy | when someone mistakenly believes that a combination of 2 events has a higher probability of happening than a single general event |
| false consensus effect | when we overestimate how much we share our beliefs or values with others |
| defensive attribution | when people put blame on or cause accidents to minimize their own anxiety or guilt |
| assimilation | fitting new information into ideas you already know, trying to understand new info by comparing it to what you already know |
| accommodtation | when you change your behavior to understand new behaviors/information |
| sensorimotor stage | thinking is shown through actions, babies use their 5 sense to create schemas, babies are egocentric meaning that they don't understand others' POVs, occurs at birth-2 years old |
| major accomplishment of sensorimotor stage | object permanence (understanding an object still exists even if you can't see it), occurs at 12-18 months |
| pre operational stage | can only classify things by 1 trait, belief in animism (giving inanimate objects/toys human qualities), occurs at 2-6 years old |
| major accomplishment of pre operational stage | symbolic thought (picturing things in your head), pretend play (relies on symbolic thought while playing), theory of mind (understanding others have different beliefs than you, occurs at 4 years old) |
| concrete operational stage | beginning to use intuitive logic and understand the world though how it affects you, classifying objects by more than one trait, occurs at 7-12 years old |
| major accomplishment of concrete operational stage | reversibility (being able to reverse an action), use of systematic thinking (end of stage, identifying patterns, drawing conclusions, making predictions), conservation (understanding that an object's quantity doesn't change even if its appearance does) |
| formal operational stage | abstract thinking and the ability to hypothesize, occurs at 12 years old and throughout adolescense |
| diffusion | no exploration and no commitment, a person has no idea who they are as a person/their identity |
| foreclosure | no exploration with strong commitment, often didn't search for their identity and base it off of parental/social norms |
| moratorium | exploration with no commitment, actively looking for identity but haven't found it yet |
| achievement | high exploration and strong commitment, a person has learned about other options and found their identity |
Created by:
ts2819