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ALL APHG VOCAB
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Absolute Distance | the distance between two points, communicated using precise quantitative units of measurements |
| Absolute Location | the precise place where something can be found; often described using latitude and longitude coordinates |
| Cartogram | maps where the size of places are distorted in order to represent some specific statistic |
| Cartography | the art and science of mapmaking- representing a geographic area on a flat surface |
| Choropleth Map | maps that use various colors, shades, or patterns to show the location and distribution of spatial data |
| Clustered | a descriptor for when there is a high level of density and a low level of distribution of data. |
| Conic Projection | a map projection used primarily for regional mapping, as size and shape are preserved but direction is very distorted due to latitude lines converging at only one pole |
| Density | how often or how much something occurs within a space |
| Dispersed | a descriptor for when there is a low level of density due to a high level of distribution |
| Distance Decay | the theory that the interaction between two places decreases as the distance between them increases |
| Distribution | where something occurs in a space |
| Dot Distribution Maps | maps that show the location and distribution of something using dots. Each dot represents a specific quantity |
| Environmental Determinism | a philosophy that states that human behaviors and culture are a direct result of the surrounding environment |
| Formal Region | an area defined by official boundaries, that is created on the basis of one or more shared characteristics |
| Functional Region | an area organized around a node or focal point and defined by an activity that occurs across the region |
| Geographic Information System | a computer system that captures, stores, analyzes, and displays geographic data (GIS) |
| Globalization | the spread of businesses, products, people and ideas around the world |
| Global Positioning System | the system that determines the precise location of something on Earth using satellites and receivers (GPS) |
| Graduated Symbol Maps | maps that use symbols of different sizes to indicate different amounts of something. Larger symbols indicate more of something and smaller symbols indicate less |
| Isoline Maps | maps that use lines that connect points of equal distance to depict variations in data. The distance between the lines indicates a change |
| Latitude | the distance of a place north or south of the Equator |
| Locator Map | illustrations used in books and advertising to show specific locations mentioned in the text |
| Longitude | the distance of a place east or west of the Prime Meridian |
| Map Projection | the process of showing a curved surface on a flat surface |
| Map Scale | the ratio between the size of things in the real world and the size of things on a map |
| Mercator Projector | a map projection used primarily for navigation that accurately depicts direction and the shape of land masses near the equator. The size of land masses is distorted |
| Peters Projection | a map projection that depicts the size of land masses accurately and is used for illustrating spatial distribution. The shape of land masses is distorted, especially near the poles |
| Physical Map | maps that show natural features, such as mountains, rivers, and deserts. |
| Plat Map | maps that show property lines and details of land ownership |
| Political Map | maps that show human-created boundaries and designations like countries, states, cities, and capitals |
| Possibilism | the theory that the environmental conditions of a place can limit its culture but that culture is primarily determined by social conditions |
| Qualitative Data | humanistic data that is not represented as statistics and is collected through means such as interviews, surveys, or observation |
| Quantitative Data | data associated with mathematical models and statistical techniques that can be quantified in numbers |
| Reference Maps | maps designed for people to refer to for general information about a place |
| Region | an area defined by one or more traits, characteristics, or features that make it different from surrounding areas |
| Relative Distance | distance measured using metrics like time, effort, or cost |
| Relative Location | he description of where something is in relation to something else |
| remote Sensing | the process of capturing images of Earth's surface from the air, using things like satellites or planes |
| Road Map | maps that show highways, streets, and alleys |
| Robinson Projection | a map projection most commonly used for education or display purposes that has no glaring distortion, but area, shape size, and direction are all slightly distorted |
| Scale of Analysis | the level at which data in a map is displayed |
| Site | the physical character of a place(combination of physical features like climate, water sources, vegetation, and elevation that help give a place a distinct character) |
| Situation | where something is located relative to its surrounding features |
| Sustainability | use of the Earth's resources in ways that ensure their availability for future generations to use |
| Thematic Maps | maps that show spatial aspects of information or a type of phenomenon |
| Time-Space Compression | the reduction in the time it takes to diffuse something to a distant place, as the result of improved communication and transportation technologies |
| Toponym | the name given to a place on Earth |
| Vernacular Region | an area that people believe exists as part of their cultural identity. Boundaries vary widely because people have a different sense of what defines and unites this type of region |
| Antinatalist Policies | policies aimed to decrease the fertility rate of a given place |
| Asylum Seeker | someone who has migrated to another country with the hope of being recognized as a refugee |
| Baby Boom | a spike in birth rates, typically occurring after a period of war |
| Baby Bust | the end of a baby boom, lasting until boomers reach childbearing age |
| Baby Echo | a spike in birth rates once baby boomers have reached childbearing age |
| Birth Deficit | a slowdown of births to a rate below the replacement level, which often occurs during time of conflict, economic downturn, or due to cultural shifts |
| Brain Drain | the large-scale emigration of highly educated or skilled workers from a place, usually to seek better lifestyle and professional opportunities abroad |
| Carrying Capacity | the largest number of people that the environment of a particular area can support |
| Census | a survey that counts the population of a state, nation, or other geographic region |
| Chain Migration | migration in which individuals follow the migratory path of preceding friends or family members to an existing community |
| Crude Birth Rate | the number of live births every year for every 1000 people |
| Crude Death Rate | the number of deaths per year for every 1000 people |
| Demographic Transition Model | a model that explains the 5 stages of population change that countries pass through as they modernize |
| Dependency Ratio | the percentage of people within a population who are too young or too old to work and must rely on working adults for support |
| Doubling Time | a measurement of how long a country will take to double its population based on its Natural Increase Rate |
| Epidemiological Transition Model | a model of the predictable stages in disease and life expectancy that countries experience as they develop |
| Forced Migration | a type of migration where people do not choose to relocate, but do so under threat of violence, persecution, or disaster |
| Guest Worker | a person with temporary permission to immigrate and work in another country |
| Immigration Quota | a limit on the number of people who can immigrate to a country from a particular place during a particular period of time |
| Infant Mortality Rate | a measure of the number of babies who die before their first birthday for every 1000 births |
| Internally Displaced Persons | someone forced to migrate for similar reasons to a refugee but who does not move across an international border |
| Internal Migration | the permanent or semipermanent movement of individuals within a country |
| Intervening Obstacle | barriers that make it difficult for migrants to reach their desired destination |
| Intervening Opportunity | a factor that cause a migrant to choose a different destination than the one they had intended when starting their journey |
| Life Expectancy | the average number of years a person can be expected to live, give current social, economic, and medical conditions |
| Malthusian Theory | society was on the path to mass starvation, as the population was increasing faster than food production capabilities. he recommended that people limit the number of children they had in order to not exhaust the Earth's reasources. |
| Migration | the permanent or semipermanent relocation of people from one place to another. It can be forced or voluntary |
| Natural Increase Rate | the differences between Crude birth and death rate; a statistic that estimates the population growth of a country, not including population lost or gained due to migration |
| Neo-Malthusians | people who have adopted Malthus' ideas to fit modern conditions and believe that overpopulation is a serious problem and threat to the future |
| One Child Policy | a set of antinatalist policies in place in China from 1979-2015 that incentivized families to have only one child using social and economic benefits |
| Population Density | the number of people who lived in a defined area |
| Population Distribution | the pattern of where people live |
| Population Pyramid | age-sex composition graphs that can provide information on birth and death rates, life expectancy, economic development, migration, and past events |
| Pronatalist Policies | policies aimed to increase the fertility rate of a given area |
| Pull factor | positive conditions and circumstances that draw people to choose a destination when migrating |
| Push factor | negative circumstances, events, or conditions present where someone lives that make them want to leave |
| Refugee | a person forced to migrate to another country to avoid the effects of armed conflict, violence, violation of human rights, or other disasters, and cannot return to their home country out of fear of persecution |
| Voluntary Migration | migration done by choice, often for a better quality of life |
| Step Migration | a process in which migrants reach their eventual destination through a series of smaller moves |
| Transhumance | seasonal migration that pastoral herders make with their animals |
| Transnational Migration | the permanent or semipermanent movement of individuals between countries |
| Acculturation | the adoption of cultural traits by one group under the influence of another, while still maintaining elements of their own culture. |
| Agnosticism | the belief that nothing can be known about whether or not God exists. |
| Atheism | the belief that God does not exist |
| Animism | belief that inanimate objects or natural events have spirits and a conscious life |
| Assimilation | the process of absorbing one cultural group into another. This happens when a group can no longer be distinguished from the dominant culture. |
| Centrifugal Force | forces or attitudes that tend to divide a state and pull the population apart |
| Centripetal Force | forces or attitudes that bring people together and enhance support for the state |
| Charter Group | the first group to establish cultural and religious customs in a place |
| Contagious Diffusion | diffusion where one person spreads an idea or innovation to multiple people and then those people spread it to multiple people until it uniformly affects all individuals and areas outward from the source |
| Creole | a language that results from the mixing of the colonizer's language with the indigenous language of the people they colonized |
| Cultural Convergence | when two cultures become more similar the more that they interact |
| Cultural Divergence | when members of a culture become less like other group members over time |
| Cultural Landscape | the structures within the physical landscape caused by human activities |
| Cultural Relativism | the principle that an person's beliefs and actions should be understood by others through the lens of the individual's own culture rather than another culture |
| Culture | all of a group's learned behaviors, actions, beliefs, and objects |
| Custom | the frequent repetition of an act, to the extent that it becomes a characteristic of the group of people performing it |
| Dialect | a regional variation of a language distinguished by distinctive vocabulary, pronunciation, and spelling |
| Diaspora | when people of one group are dispersed to various locations but still maintain their heritage in their new land |
| Diffusion | the process by which an innovation or idea spreads from one place to another over time |
| Distance Decay | the idea that the interaction between two places decreases as the distance between them increases |
| Environmental Determinism | the belief that the physical environment actively shapes culture |
| Ethnic Enclave | relatively small, ethnically homogenous areas situated within a larger and more diverse cultural context |
| Ethnicity | identity of a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland |
| Ethnic Religion | religion that primarily appeal to one group of people living in a particular place |
| Ethnocentrism | the belief that one's own culture or ethnic group is superior to others; judging other groups through the lens of one's own culture |
| Expansion Diffusion | a type of diffusion where an innovation or idea develops in a hearth and remains strong there, while also spreading outwards |
| Extinct Language | a language that is no longer spoken, read or used in daily activities by anyone in the world |
| Folk Culture | culture that is traditionally practiced primarily by small, homogenous groups living in isolated rural areas |
| Fundamentalism | a type of religious movement characterized by strict conformity to a religious text |
| Globalization | the spread of businesses, products, people and ideas around the world |
| Hearth | the place where an idea or innovation originates from |
| Hierarchical Diffusion | the spread of an idea from one key person or node of authority/power to other people/places with less power and influence |
| Isogloss | word usage boundaries determined by data collected directly from people |
| Isolated Language | a language unrelated to any other and therefore not attached to any language family |
| Language Family | a collection of languages related through a common ancestral language that existed long before recorded history |
| Language Group | a collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display many similarities in grammar and vocabulary |
| Lingua Franca | a language of international communication |
| Material Culture | visible, tangible aspects of culture such as architecture, clothing, books, instruments, etc |
| Missionary | someone who embarks on a mission to spread their religion to new people and places |
| Monolingual | speaking only one language |
| Monotheism | Belief that there is only one God |
| Multiculturalism | the coexistence of several cultures in one society, with the idea of all cultures being valued and worthy of practice |
| Multilingual | speaking more than one language |
| Nativism | favoring those born in a country over immigrants |
| Non-Material Culture | invisible, intangible culture such as values, beliefs, behaviors, and norms |
| Official language | a language designated by a country as one used by the government for las, reports, and public objects |
| Pidgin language | a simplified form of language that adopts the grammar and vocabulary of a lingua franca to allow speakers of two different languages to communicate |
| Polytheism | belief that there is more than one God |
| Popular Culture | culture found in large, heterogeneous societies that share certain habits despite differences in other personal characteristics |
| Possibilism | the belief that environmental conditions may impact culture in some ways, but people are he primary architects of culture |
| Relocation Diffusion | the spread of an idea or innovation through the physical movement of people who migrate and take their ideas with them |
| Romance Languages | a group of related languages derived from Vulgar Latin |
| Sect | a relatively small group that has broken away from an established religious denomination |
| Sense of Place | the emotions someone attaches to an area based on their experiences |
| Sequent Occupance | the notion that successive societies leave their cultural imprints on a place, each contributing to the cumulative cultural landscape |
| Stimulus Diffusion | when something spreads but it is changed by the people who adapt it |
| Syncretism | when traits from two distinct cultures fuse to form a new cultural trait |
| Taboo | a restriction on behavior imposed by a social custom |
| Time-Space Compression | the reduction of the time it takes to diffuse something to a distant place as a result of improved communication and transportation technologies |
| Universalizing Religion | religions that attempt to appeal to all people, everywhere in the world, not just those of one culture or location |
| Annex | the formal acquisition of territory by conquest or occupation |
| Antecedent Boundary | a boundary drawn before a large population was present |
| Autonomous Region | areas that have their own local and legislative bodies to govern a population that is an ethnic minority within the state |
| Balkanization | the breaking of a state into smaller, often hostile, states along ethno-linguistic lines |
| Berlin Conference | an 1884 meeting of the major colonial powers at which they divided Africa into colonies without any consolation of Africa leaders |
| Census | an official count of the population, typically recording various details of individual citizens |
| Choke Point | a strategic strait or canal which could be closed or blocked to stop sea traffic |
| City State | a small sovereign state that is made up of a town or city and the surrounding area |
| Cold War | a period of diplomatic, political, and military rivalry between the US and USSR that started at the end of WW2 and lasted until the collapse of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and break up of the Soviet Union in 1991 |
| Colonialism | a particular type of imperialism in which people move into and settle on the land of another country |
| Consequent Boundary | a boundary created to accommodate a region's cultural diversity |
| Decolonization | when colonized nations win their independence from a colonizing force |
| Defined Boundary | a boundary established by a legal document such as a treaty that divides one entity from another |
| Delimited Boundary | a boundary line drawn on a map to show the limits of a space |
| Demarcated Boundary | a boundary identified by physical objects placed on the landscape (ex: signs, fences, walls) |
| Democratization | the transition from autocratic to more representative forms of government |
| Devolution | the transfer of political power from the central government to lower, subnational levels of government |
| Domino Theory | the idea that if one country came under the influence of Communism, then surrounding countries would follow suit |
| Ethnic Cleansing | the forced removal of a major ethnic group from a territory |
| Failed State | a state within which the government has lost the ability to provide the most basic of public services |
| Federal State | a country where governmental authority is shared among a central government and various other smaller regional authorities |
| Forward Capital | a symbolically relocated capital city, usually for economic or strategic reasons |
| Geometric Boundary | a boundary that is a straight line drawn by people that does not follow any physical feature closely |
| Genocide | the deliberate killing of a large number of people from a particular nation or ethnic group with the aim of destroying that group |
| Geopolitics | the study of the effects of geography on politics and relations among states |
| Gerrymandering | the drawing of boundaries for political districts by the party or group in power to extend or cement their advantage |
| Heartland Theory | the idea that land-based power is essential in achieving |
| Imperialism | influencing another country or group of people by direct conquest, economic control, or cultural dominance |
| Irredentism | the process by which part of an existing state breaks away and merges with another |
| Microstate | a country that is small in terms of both population and area |
| Militarized Boundary | a boundary that is heavily guarded and discourages crossing and movements |
| Multinational State | a country that contains more than one nation |
| Multi-State Nation | when a nation has a state of its own but stretches across the borders of other states |
| Nation | a group of people who have a common cultural heritage and attachment to a homeland |
| Nationalism | a nation's desire to create and maintain a state of its own |
| Nation-State | a singular nation of people who fulfill the qualifications of a state |
| Natural Boundary | a boundary based on physical features |
| Neocolonialism | when control of developing countries is exerted through indirect means, whether economic, political, or cultural |
| Open Boundary | a boundary where is crossing is unimpeded |
| Organic Theory | states are born and need nourishment and living space to survive, which they get by annexing territory from weaker states. A state has to grow or it will cease to exist |
| Reapportionment | changing the number of representatives granted to each district so it reflects the districts population |
| Redistricting | redrawing district boundaries so that each district contains thoroughly the same number of people |
| Relic Boundary | a boundary that no longer exists or functions, but evidence of it can still be seen on the landscape |
| Rimland Theory | the idea that control of the Rimland is crucial to worldwide power because that area has more varied reasresourcesurces than the Heartland, more people, and greater access to the sea. Whoever controls Rimland, controls the world. |
| Satellite State | when one state is dominated by another politically and economically |
| Self-Determination | the process by which a group of people form their own state and choose their own government |
| Shatterbelt | a region that suffers from instability because it is located between two larger powers that work in opposition to each other |
| Sovereignty | the power of a political unit to rule over its own affairs |
| State | in international relations, the formal term for a country |
| Stateless Nation | nations that have no independent political entity (ex: palestinians) |
| Subnationalism | when peoples' primary allegiance is to a traditional group or ethnicity rather than the state |
| Subsequent Boundary | a boundary drawn to accommodate religious, linguistic, ethnic, or economic differences |
| Superimposed Boundary | a boundary drawn by outside powers with no regard to the already existing people there |
| Supranational | outside or beyond the authority of one national government |
| Supranational Organizations | organizations of three or more countries that transcend national boundaries to make decisions on a geopolitical level |
| Territoriality | a willingness by one person or a group of people to defend the space they claim |
| UN Convention of the Law of the Sea | a convention that governs relations among countries about how to use and control the oceans. The sea is divided into four zones: territorial sea, contiguous zone, exclusive economic zone, and the high seas |
| Unitary State | a country where governmental authority is held primarily by the central government. |
| Agribusiness | the integration of various steps of production in the food processing industry |
| Aquaculture | the practice of raising and harvesting fish and other forms of food that live in water |
| Arable Land | land that is capable of producing food; suitable for farming |
| Bid-Rent Theory | The theory that when something is in high demand, it is going to cost more. Land value and rent are higher closer to central market |
| Biodiversity | the variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem |
| Carrying Capacity | the maximum number of people that an environment can support |
| Clustered Settlement | a rural settlement pattern where family homes and farm buildings are located close together, with farmland surrounding them |
| Columbian Exchange | the exchange of plants and animals between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas following the voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1942 |
| Commercial Agriculture | the exchange of plants and animals between Afro-Eurasia and the Americas following the voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1942 |
| Community-Supported Agriculture | plots of land used for growing food that are farmed collectively and used to benefit the whole community |
| Crop Rotation | The practice of rotating use of different fields from crop-to-crop each year to avoid exhausting the soil |
| Dairy Farming | Raising cattle for the purpose of producing milk |
| Deforestation | the removal of large tracts of trees or forest by natural or man-made means |
| Desertification | The transition of land from fertile to desert |
| Dispersed Settlement | a rural settlement pattern characterized by isolated farms |
| Distance Decay | theory that states that the interaction between two place decreases as the distance between them increases |
| Domestication | raising plants and animals for human use |
| Double Cropping | the planting and harvesting of the same parcel of land twice a year |
| Enclosure Acts | series of laws enacted by the british government that enclosed and sold land to private owners that had been previously been common land used by peasant farmers |
| Extensive Farming | agriculture that uses fewer inputs of capital and paid labor relative to the amount of space being used |
| Fair Trade Movement | effort to promote higher incomes for farmers, particularly in developing countries, and to protect workers rights |
| Feedlot | Places where livestock are concentrated in a very small area and raised on hormones and hearty grains that prepare them for slaughter at a fast rate |
| Fertile Crescent | a bountiful region of land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in the middle east |
| Fertilizer | a chemical or natural substance added to soil or land to increase fertility. |
| Food Desert | a community where there is no access to fresh, healthy, affordable options because there is a lack of food or grocery stores or farmers markets |
| Genetically Modified Organisms | crop whose genetic structure has been altered to make it more useful for human purposes |
| Grain Farming | growing grains for human consumption |
| Green Revolution | development of high-yielding, disease-resistant, faster-growing varieties of crops |
| Horticulture | type of agriculture that produces perishable items that farmers need to get to the market quickly |
| Intensive Farming | agriculture that involves greater inputs of capital and paid labor relative to the amount of space used |
| Irrigation | process of diverting water from its natural course or location to aid in the production of crops |
| Linear Settlement | rural settlement pattern in which farms are clustered around a road or river with fields behind them |
| Long Lot | A rural survey method used by the French and in regions of North America previously colonized by the French that involves long rectangular plots of farmland along rivers that have equal access to the water. |
| Luxury Crops (cash too) | crops that are not essential to human survival but have a high profit margin |
| Market Gardening | growing fruits and vegetables for the primary purpose of freezing and canning |
| Mediterranean Farming | griculture practiced in regions with hot dry summers and mild winters, narrow valleys, and simple vegetation systems. (figs, dates, olives, grapes) |
| Metes & Bounds | rural survey method where land is divided based on the features of the physical landscape and distance and direction |
| Mixed Crop Livestock Farming | an integrated system where crops grown are used to feed the livestock on the same farm |
| Monoculture | specializing in the growing of a single crop in a given area |
| Neolithic Revolution | The origin of farming (first agricultural revolution), marked by the initial domestication of plants and animals. |
| Organic food | food without the use of pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, or other unnatural processes |
| Pastoral Nomadism | the movement of herds of animals to different pastures within a territory |
| Pesticides | a substance used for destroying insects or other organisms that are harmful to cultivated plants or animals |
| Plantation Farming | large commercial farming specializing in one crop |
| Raching | the commercial grazing of animals confined to a specific area |
| Second Agricultural Revolution | Beginning in the 1700s, the advances of the Industrial Revolution were used to increase food supplies. |
| Shifting Cultivation | arming that involves moving crops from one field to another, clearing the land by burning the vegetation |
| Soil Degradation | soil loses its ability to support plant growth and is more easily eroded by wind or water |
| Soil Salinization | When soil in an arid climate has been irrigated for use as farmland and the water evaporates, leaving salt residue behind that eventually causes the land to become infertile. |
| Subsistence Agriculture | farmers grow crops to feed themselves and their families |
| Suitcase Farm | farm on which no one lives and the planting and harvesting is performed by farmers who live nearby or by migrant workers |
| Sustainability | use of Earth's resources in a way that ensures their availability for future generations to use as well |
| Terrace Farming | humans build a series of steps into the side of a hill, creating flat surfaces for the purpose of agriculture |
| Third Agricultural Revolution | The revolution that began in the 1960s and included the Green Revolution. It was marked by an agribusiness model and involved better and more efficient farming equipment and practices. |
| Township & Range | A rural survey method where land is divided using latitude and longitude. Land is split into large squares that can be subsequently divided into smaller squares. |
| Urban Agriculture | practice of cultivation, processing, and distributing food in or around towns or cities |
| Von Thunen's Land Use Model | An economic model that suggested a pattern for the types of products that farmers would produce at different positions relative to the market where they sold their goods. |
| African Cities Model | an urban model that reflects the impact of colonization in Africa and includes both a traditional and a colonial CBD and a market zone |
| Bid-Rent Theory | the price and demand for real estate changes based on the distance from the central business district. Land closer to the CBD is more expensive since there is less of it and more demand. |
| Blockbusting | when people of one ethnic group are frightened into selling their homes at low prices when they hear a family of another race or ethnicity is moving into the neighborhood |
| Boomburb | a suburban area experiencing significant growth in population and prosperity |
| Borchert's Epochs | a model that suggest that each new transportation system changed how people moved in and between urban areas and influenced urban development |
| Brownfield | sites of abandoned factories; a property which has the potential to be hazardous waste, pollutant, or contaminant |
| Central Business District | the commercial heart of a city that is the focal point of transportation and services |
| Central Place Theory | a theory proposed by Walter Christaller that explains how services are distributed and why a regular pattern of settlement exists. Every central place is surrounded by a market area it services. |
| Conurbation | when a chain of cities grows until they merge into a single uninterrupted area |
| Concentric Zone Model | Burgess' urban model where the city is structured as a series of rings around the CBD, with housing getting larger and more expensive the farther away it is from the center |
| De Facto Segregation | segregation of people that happens "by fact" rather than by law |
| Disamenity Zone | areas not connected to city services and under the control of drug lords and gangs, often located in physically unsafe locations like mountain slopes |
| Ecumene | the permanently inhabited portion of the Earth's surface |
| Edge City | a city that exists on the fringes of a larger city and acts as a regional hub for recreation, business, or other community activity for the suburban population of the larger city |
| Eminent Domain | laws allowing the government to seize land for public use after paying owners fair market value |
| Ethnic Enclave | relatively small, ethnically homogeneous areas situated within a larger and more diverse cultural context |
| Exurbanization | the movement of suburbanites further out into rural areas |
| Filtering | the change in the use of a house from a single-family home to rented units in a multifamily dwelling to eventual abandonment |
| Food Desert | a community where there is no access to fresh, healthy, affordable food options because there is a lack of grocery stores or farmers markets. |
| Forward Capital | a symbolically relocated capital city, usually for economic or strategic reasons |
| Galactic City Model | an urban model that illustrates the spread of cities outward from the CBD to the suburbs, leaving a declining inner city |
| Gated Community | walled or fenced neighborhoods with limited access |
| Gentrification | the process of wealthier residents moving into a neighborhood, renovating and making it unaffordable for existing residents |
| Ghettos | areas of poverty occupied by a minority group as a result of discrimination |
| Gravity Model | Places that are larger and closer together will have more interaction (flow of people and goods) than places that are smaller and farther away from each other. |
| Greenbelts | areas of undeveloped land around an urban area |
| Hinterland | the outlying towns and small communities that rely on the central city for goods and services |
| Infill | the process of building up underused lands within a city |
| Informal Economy | the portion of the economy that is not taxed, regulated, or managed by the government |
| Latin American Cities Model | An urban model that mixes sectors and concentric zones. It includes a CBD with a commercial spine and the quality of housing decreases as one moves outward from the CBD. |
| Megacity | a city with more than 10 million residents |
| Megalopolis | a chain of interconnected cities |
| Metacity | large cities that have more than 20 million residents |
| Metropolitan Area | a collection of adjacent cities across which population density is high and continuous |
| Mixed-Use Neighborhoods | neighborhoods with a mix of residential and commercial buildings (not separated into zones) |
| Multiple Nuclei Model | An urban model where a city grows from several independent points rather than a single CBD, and as they expand, they merge to form a single urban area. |
| New Urbanism | A movement in urban planning that emerged in the 1990s with goals including reducing urban sprawl, increasing affordable housing, and creating livable neighborhoods. |
| Pedestrian Cities | urban centers that were shaped by the distances people could walk |
| Primate City Rule | if the largest city in an urban system is more than twice as large as the next largest city, the largest city is said to have primacy |
| Range | the distance people will travel to obtain specific goods or services |
| Rank-Size Rule | The population of a town or city will be inversely proportional to its rank in the urban hierarchy. The second-largest city will be half the population of the first largest, the third-largest will be a third of the population of the first largest, etc. |
| Redlining | the process by which banks refused loans to those who wanted to purchase and improve properties in certain urban areas |
| Rural | sparsely populated places away from the influence of large cities |
| Sector Model | Hoyt's urban model that is arranged in a series of sectors or wedges that radiate out from the central business district. |
| Satellite City | an established town near a very large city that grows into a city independent of the larger one |
| Settlement | a place with a permanent human population |
| Shantytown | Unplanned slum developments on the margins of cities, dominated by crude dwellings and shelters made of found materials |
| Smart Growth | a set of policies in the US to preserve farmland and other open, undeveloped spaces near a city |
| Southeast Asian Cities Model | An urban model in which the focus of the city is the port zone. There is an alien and a western commercial zone and a belt of market gardening surrounds the city. |
| Squatter Settlement | Settlements in which people living there do not have a legal right to the land or property and are living there illegally. |
| Suburbanization | the process of people moving, usually from cities, to residential areas on the outskirts of cities |
| Threshold | The size of population necessary for any particular service to exist and remain profitable. Services with a low threshold are common and present in even the smallest central places. Services with higher thresholds required a larger population to survive. |
| Urban Canyon | streets lined with tall buildings that can channel and intensify wind and prevent natural sunlight from reaching the ground |
| Urban Decay | deterioration of an urban area due to age or neglect |
| Urbanization | the process through which urban areas grow as the population moves into cities and away from rural areas |
| Urban Redevelopment | Renovating a site by removing the existing landscape and building from the ground up. |
| Urban Sprawl | the rapid spread of development outward from the city center |
| World City | a city that exerts influence far beyond its national boundaries |
| Zoning | the idea that zones or regions of an urban area have specific and distinct purposes |
| Industrial Revolution | The rapid transformation of the economy through the introduction of machines, new power sources, and new chemical processes in Europe and the United States between 1760 and 1830 |
| textile | A fabric or cloth woven from the fibers of wool, cotton, or flax |
| labor productivity | The average amount of goods or services produced per worker per unit of time |
| fossil fuels | Natural fuel derived from the fossilized remains of living organisms |
| crude oil | A yellowish-black liquid fossil fuel found in geologic deposits |
| commercial farmers | Farmers who raise crops and livestock to sell in the market at a profit rather than raising them for their own consumption |
| wage labor | A socioeconomic relationship in which an employer pays a worker to complete a task, sometimes by the day or by the hour |
| working class | The people in an industrial economy who depend on wage labor to obtain the necessities of life |
| capitalist class | People who own the means of production and pay the wages of workers |
| middle class | People who are either salaried professionals (such as lawyers, educators, and physicians) or office wage workers (such as bank tellers and store clerks) |
| labor unions | Associations of workers in particular industries established to collectively bargain with capitalists |
| mass production | The machine manufacture of large quantities of identical products |
| assembly line | A system of manufacturing in which parts and procedures are added one step at a time through a series of workstations until a finished product is assembled |
| mass consumption | The purchase of large amounts of mass-produced goods by large numbers of people |
| international division of labor | The situation in which the labor forces of different countries and world regions play complementary roles in an interdependent global economy |
| economic sectors | Groupings of industries based on what is produced and the activities of the workforce |
| primary sector | Industries that extract natural resources from the environment |
| secondary sector | Industries that process the raw materials extracted by primary industries, transforming them into finished, usable forms |
| tertiary sector | Industries that provide services to businesses and consumers, including all the different types of work necessary to transport and deliver goods and resources |
| quaternary sector | The portion of the economy dedicated to intellectual and informational services, such as scientific research and development |
| quinary sector | The portion of the economy where the highest-level management decisions are made in the areas of business, government, education, and science |
| base industry | An industry of disproportionate economic importance and on whose existence other industries and employment sectors depend |
| semi-periphery | Countries or regions whose economies have elements of both the core and the periphery |
| break-of-bulk point | A location where cargo is transferred from one mode of transportation to another |
| shipping containers | Standardized, stackable, intermodal metal boxes used to transport goods by ship, railroad, or truck |
| containerization | The system of intermodal freight transport using shipping containers |
| least-cost theory | Alfred Weber's theory that transportation costs and labor costs play a strong role in determining the location of manufacturing facilities |
| world systems theory | Wallerstein's theory of economic development that regards world history as moving through a series of socioeconomic systems, culminating in the modern world system by about the year 1900 |
| dependency theory | The theory that the periphery is poor because it was economically dependent on the core in a disadvantageous relationship originally established under colonialism and imperialism |
| commodity dependence | Occurs when commodities account for more than 60 percent of the value of a country's total exports |
| gross national product (GNP) | The total value of all the goods and services made by a country's residents and businesses in a specific time period, regardless of the country or location in which they were made |
| gross domestic product (GDP) | The total value of all goods and services produced within a country over a specific period, regardless of the producer's national origin |
| gross national income (GNI) | The total income of a country's residents and businesses, including investment income, regardless of where it was earned, as well as money received from abroad such as foreign investment and development aid |
| GDP per capita | A country's GDP divided by its total population |
| purchasing power parity (PPP) | Measures how much a common "basket of goods" costs locally in the currency of each country being compared |
| Gender Inequality Index (GII) | A statistical measure of gender inequality that combines data on reproductive health, empowerment, and labor-market participation |
| Human Development Index (HDI) | A statistical measure of human achievement that combines data on life expectancy at birth, education levels, and GNI per capita (PPP) population. |
| informal sector | The part of any economy that is not officially recorded, monitored, or taxed by the government |
| formal sector | The part of the economy that is officially recorded with the government |
| income distribution | How a country's total GDP is distributed among the individuals in its population |
| Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) | A measurement of gender equality that includes the proportion of seats held by women in national parliaments, the percentage of women in economic decision-making positions, and women's versus men's share of earned income |
| gender parity | A way of documenting progress toward gender equality using measures such as relative access to education, average incomes for women versus men, and workforce participation |
| microloan | A very small loan to people with little income or collateral intended to help them establish or expand a small business |
| mercantilism | A theory of trade stating that each country strives to export more than it imports in order to accumulate wealth |
| protectionism | Trade rules that restrict imports in order to protect domestic industries |
| absolute advantage | A country's ability to produce a good or service more efficiently than another country |
| comparative advantage | A country's ability to produce one product much more efficiently than it can produce other products within its economy |
| complementarity | A measure of how well one country's export profile matches another country's import profile |
| transnational corporation (TNC) | A firm with the power to coordinate and control operations in more than one country, even if it does not own those operations |
| competitive advantage | A firm's relative ability to outperform other TNCs in its industry |
| neoliberalism | A range of pro-market and antigovernment positions on the economy, such as reducing government ownership and regulation and promoting privatization and market-based solutions |
| International Monetary Fund (IMF) | International organization that seeks to foster global monetary cooperation, achieve financial stability, facilitate international trade, and promote sustainable economic growth |
| World Bank | An international financial organization that provides funding and expertise to promote sustainable economic growth in developing countries |
| World Trade Organization (WTO) | An international organization that regulates trade among 184 member states, providing a framework for negotiating trade agreements and resolving trade disputes |
| free-trade agreement | A treaty between two or more countries that reduces tariffs and promotes foreign investment |
| tariff | Tax on imported goods and services |
| customs union | A free trade agreement among two or more member countries, combined with a single, common external trade policy for nonmembers |
| Mercosur | Spanish acronym for the Southern Common Market, a South American customs union that includes Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay as its full members |
| Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) | An international trade agreement designed to regulate the output of oil |
| trade embargo | An official ban on trade with a specific country or of a specific good |
| financial market | Marketplace where financial instruments are traded; stock markets, bond markets, and foreign exchange markets are all financial markets |
| debt crisis | Occurs when a government's debts exceed its tax revenues to the point that it cannot meet its loan payments |
| import substitution industrialization (ISI) | An economic development policy intended to replace imported goods with domestically produced goods as a way to spur industrialization and reduce dependence on other countries |
| Fordism | The economic and social arrangement based on the mass production of standardized goods, high labor union membership rates, stable and full-time manufacturing employment, and high factory wages that enable mass consumption |
| corporate disinvestment | A process in which companies stop investing in factory construction, equipment, and improvement and begin selling off assets, such as machinery, buildings, and land |
| offshoring | The relocation of manufacturing and support services from one country to another |
| outsourcing | The transfer of part of a firm's internal operations to a third party |
| deindustrialization | The decline, and sometimes complete disappearance, of employment in the manufacturing sector in the core's industrial centers |
| special economic zone (SEZ) | Specific area within a country's borders where business and trade laws are different from those in the rest of the country |
| export processing zone (EPZ) | Industrial zone with special incentives to attract foreign investment to places where imported materials undergo processing or assembly before being re-exported |
| free-trade zone (FTZ) | Specially designated duty-free area that provides warehousing, storage, and distribution facilities for goods intended for trade or re-export |
| new international division of labor | The spatial shift of manufacturing from developed countries to developing countries, including the global scaling of labor markets and industrial sites |
| post-Fordism | The shifts from manufacturing centers to spatially dispersed production sites, from standardized mass production to specialized batch production, and from a permanent workforce to temporary and contract workers |
| just-in-time manufacturing (JIT) | The production of small batches of goods as needed by customer demand |
| high-technology industry | An industry that develops and uses the most advanced technologies available and has the highest levels of research and development |
| agglomeration economies | Occur where firms cluster spatially in order to take advantage of geographic concentrations of skilled labor and industry suppliers, specialized infrastructure, and ease of face-to-face contact with industry participants |
| multiplier effects | The creation of new business and jobs in other industries as the result of investment in a different industry |
| growth pole | Geographically pinpointed center of economic activity organized around a designated industry, commonly in the high-tech sector |
| sustainable development | Development that meets present consumption needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their consumption needs |
| resource depletion | The consumption of natural resources faster than they can be replenished |
| environmental pollution | The contamination of the physical (air, water, earth) and biological components of the environment to the point that normal functions are negatively affected |
| point source pollution | Any single identifiable source from which contaminants are discharged, such as a pipe or smokestack |
| nonpoint source pollution | Contamination originating from multiple, diffuse sources |
| climate change | A long-term shift in global or regional climate patterns. |
| cogeneration | Producing two forms of energy from one fuel |
| carbon neutrality | Achieving zero CO2 releases through a combination of emissions reduction and carbon removal |
| carbon offsets | Processes that remove or sequester (store) carbon from the atmosphere to make up for CO2 emissions elsewhere |
| ecotourism | Travel to natural areas of ecological value in support of conservation efforts and socially just economic development |
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