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PSY 311 Ch. 13
Book Notes and Lecture
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| The goal of a descriptive research is | simply to describe individual variables as they exist naturally |
| 3 descriptive research designs are considered: | 1. Observational research 2. Survey research 3. Case study research |
| Observational research | describe observations of behaviors as they occur in natural settings |
| Survey research | describe people's responses to questions about behavior and attitudes |
| Case study research | describe a single individual in great detail |
| Behavioral observation | involves the direct observation and systematic recording of behaviors |
| Behavioral observation has 2 special measurement problems: | 1. behaviors are not disrupted or influenced by the presence of an observer-raises the question of demand characteristics and reactivity 2. observation and measurement require at least some degree of subjective interpretation- question of reliability |
| To address the first problem of the special measurement problem in behavioral observation is | habituation: repeated exposure of participants to the observer's presence until it is no longer a novel stimulus |
| To address the second problem of the special measurement problem in behavioral observation is that researchers typically employ 3 interrelated devices to help ensure the objectivity of their behavioral observations. | First, develop a list of well-defined categories of behavior; next, use well-trained observers; finally, use multiple observers to assess inter-rate reliability |
| Behavioral categories | categories of behavior to be observed. A set of behavior categories and a list of exactly which behaviors count as examples of each are developed before observation begins |
| Behavioral observation also involves converting the observations into numerical scores that can be used to describe individuals and groups. Accomplished by 1 of 3 techniques: | 1. Frequency method 2. Duration method 3. The interval method |
| Frequency method | involves counting the instances of each specific behavior that occur during a fixed-time observation period |
| Duration Method | involves recording how much time an individual spends engaged in a specific behavior during a fixed-time observation period |
| The Interval Method | involves dividing the observation period into a series of intervals and then recording whether a specific behavior occurs during each interval |
| The first step in the process of sampling observation is to divide the observation period into a series of time intervals. Consists of 1 of the following 3 procedures: | Time sampling, event sampling, individual sampling |
| Time sampling | involves observing one interval, then pausing during the next interval to record all the observations |
| Event Sampling | involves identifying one specific event or behavior to be observed and recorded during the first interval, then shifting attention to a different event or behavior during the second interval, and soon, for the full series of intervals |
| Individual Sampling | involves identifying one participant to be observed during the first interval , then shifting attention to a different individual for the 2nd interval, and so on |
| Content Analysis | using the techniques of behavioral observation to measure the occurrence of specific events in literature, movies, television or similar media that represent replicas of behaviors |
| Archival research | involves looking at historical records (archives) to measure behavior or events that occurred in the past |
| The process of content analysis and archival research follow the same rules that are used for behavioral observation. Specifically, the measurement process involves the following: | 1. behavioral categories and list of specific examples to define exactly which events are included in each category being measured. 2. Using the frequency, duration or interval method. 3. Using multiple observers to obtain inter-rater reliability |
| 3 kinds of observation | Naturalistic, participant, and contrived |
| Naturalistic or nonparticipant observation | a researcher observes behavior in a natural setting as unobtrusively as possible -useful in providing into real-world behavior -high degrees of external validity -cannot be manipulated by researchers |
| Disadvantages of Naturalistic Observation | time needed to conduct this type of research and observer must take extra care not to disrupt or influence the behavior being observed |
| Participant Observation | researcher engages in the same activities as the people being observed in order to observe and record their behavior -get info. that may not be accessible to outside observation -high external validity |
| Limitations to Participant observation | extremely time- consuming, potentially dangerous for the observer, and observer may alter participant's behavior or observer may lose objectivity |
| Contrived observation or structured observation | observation of behavior in settings arranged specifically to facilitate the occurrence of specific behaviors -conducted in lab settings -process is much quicker -do not have to wait for behaviors to occur naturally |
| A disadvantage of contrived observation is that | because environment is less natural, the behavior may be as well |
| Developmental psychologists frequently use | structured observation |
| Strengths of observational research | observes and records actual behavior, high external validity and flexibility |
| A general weakness of the descriptive research strategy and of all observational research is that they | simply describe behavior and do not examine its causes |
| During a study using the behavioral research strategy, it is common to have 2 observers record behavior simultaneously. What is the purpose for this procedure? | it is used to ensure the objectivity of the measurements |
| Survey Research Design | a research study that uses a survey to obtain a description of a particular group of individuals |
| 4 issues to conduct a survey research | 1. survey questions must be developed 2. questions must be assembled and organized 3. selection process must be developed to determine who will participate or not; representative of the general group 4. determine how the survey will be administered |
| Open-Ended questions | simply introduces a topic and allows participants to respond in their own words |
| Primary Advantage and Major disadvantage of Open-Ended questions | flexibility in how to answer |
| Disadvantages of Open-Ended Questions | answers can be difficult to summarize or analyze with conventional statistical methods -may be limited to participant's ability to express his or her own thoughts |
| Restricted Questions | presents the participant with a limited number of response alternatives -easy to analyze and summarize -possible to obtain quantitative info. |
| Rating-Scale Questions | requires a participant to respond by selecting a numerical value on a predetermined scale -Likert Scale |
| Researchers commonly use from 5 to 10 numerical values on Rating-Scale Questions. Reasoning based on two observations: | 1. Participants tend to avoid the 2 extreme categories at the opposite end of the scale 2. Have trouble discriminating among more than 9 or 10 different levels -no absolute rule for labeling the categories |
| Anchors | the verbal labels that identify the opposite extremes and establish the endpoints of the scale -Ex: strongly disagree/ strongly agree |
| One criticism of the Rating-scale questions is that whenever questions in a series all have the same choices for responding, | participants tend to use the same response to answer all (or most) questions (response set) or feel very neutral -to minimize problem is to include a mixture of positive and negative statements |
| The primary advantage of Rating-scale questions is they | produce numerical values that can be treated as measurements from an interval scale. Participants find them easy to understand and easy to answer |
| Nonreponse Bias | in survey research involving mailed surveys, individuals who return the survey are not usually representative of the entire group who received the survey. A threat to external validity |
| Interviewer Bias | the influence of the researcher verbally asking participants questions on the participants' natural responses |
| Types of Ways to Administer a survey | -internet -mailing -telephone -in-person -interviews |
| Strengths of Survey Research | flexibility, easy and efficient means of gathering a large amount of information |
| Disadvantages of Survey Research | low response rates, nonresponse bias, can be different to analyze or summarize, info. obtained is always a self-report |
| Although surveys can be used with a variety of different research strategies, which of the following is the defining characteristic of the survey research design? | the intent is simply to describe behaviors |
| what is an advantage to administering a survey over the internet? | survey can be individualized based on responses |
| Case Study Design | involves the in-depth study and detailed description of a single individual. May involve an intervention or treatment administered by the researcher. Most commonly used in clinical psych |
| Case History | when a case study does not include any treatment or intervention |
| The case study design is often used to | provide researchers with information. Concerning rare or unusual phenomena. -new therapy methods or applications |
| Strengths of Case Study Design | intense detail of different variables, events, and responses -identify special situations or unique variables that can modify a general treatment effect -can be extremely powerful and convincing |
| Weaknesses of Case Study Design | simply describes and does not attempt to identify the underlying mechanisms that explain behavior - weak in external validity -suffer from bias that distorts or obscures the results and interpretations-threaten internal validity |
| Although case studies are exposed to serious threats to both internal and external validity and are subject to bias, many of these problems are reduced by | replication |
| Which of the following accurately describes the idiographic approach to research? | the intensive study of one individual |
| Survey research includes: | -Interviews -Phone surveys -Questionaires |
| Interviews | -structured or unstructured -costly -often qualitative -concerns: interviewer bias--> affecting participant scores, interpreting answers |
| Phone surveys | structured or unstructured -was easy to get random (representative sample) -cheaper -fewer social desirability concerns |
| Questionaires | -paper or electronic -cheapest -fewest social desirability concerns |
| Survey Research particularly useful for assessing: | -demographics -attitudes and beliefs -past behavior -unobservable current behavior -motivation and emotion -personality traits |
| Extremely common advantages of Survey Research | -easy to administer--> quick to administer and score, can gather a lot of info., requires few resources -can assess non-observable variables (ex: self-esteem, attitudes) -can assess variables that you cannot (ethically) manipulate |
| Extremely common disadvantages of Survey Research | -accuracy of often low---> people sometimes lack insight (ex: their own weaknesses, beliefs), forget previous behavior (ex: frequency of sex), socially desirable responding (lying) -if assessing the IV, cannot demonstrate causation (non-experimental r.) |
| Survey Construction | 1. Operationally define the variable 2. Develop valid survey questions 3. how do participants answer your questions? 4. Assembled your survey |
| Operationally define the variables | should reflect the research question -may include different operations of the same variable |
| Develop valid survey questions: should be easy to understand. Avoid: | technical terms, vague or imprecise terms, long or run-on questions, double-barrel questions, leading questions, emotionally charged words, negative wording, prevent yea-saying and nay-saying |
| Double-barreled questions | a question that asks 2 things at once -Ex: do you think professors should have more contact with staff and students |
| Leading questions example: | "should concerned parents use infant car seats" |
| Questions should be neutral, example: | "are you in favor of reducing budget" |
| Negative wording example: -can confuse people | "are you opposed to not allowing gays and lesbians to legally marry" or "do you disagree with the idea that parents should not spank their children" |
| Prevent yea-saying and nay-saying | when participants agree or disagree with all items because they are not paying attention -reversing the wording of some items can prevent this |
| Open vs. closed ended questions | closed-ended questions give a limited number of responses |
| Rating scale (type of close-ended) | respondents pick a number on a scale (1-10) |
| Likert scale (close-ended) | specific type of rating scale -assesses degree of agreement/ disagreement |
| Rating scales need to consider: | number of response options: 5-7 is usually sufficient, odd numbers allow neutral responses; even numbers require participants to lean in one direction -how to label the scale: labels are known as anchors, anchors can affect how people respond |
| Closed-ended questions | -easy to score -but might neglect important info: might exclude important choices, won't obtain tangential information |
| Open-ended allow participants to respond however they want | -qualitative -Advantages: tends to provide much more info. -Drawbacks: need to decide how to score responses, takes more time to analyze |
| Assemble your survey | organized in a way that is easy for participants to understand -viewable on different devices? -questions are spaced out, text not too small or too large |
| Assemble your survey: Order matters | questions can bias responses to later questions! -Ex: political affiliation influences responses to political beliefs -place more uncomfortable/ personal questions near the end -demographic items are rarely biased and thus go last |
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