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Qualitive Chemistry
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what type of compounds do trantion metals usually form? | They have partially filled d orbitals. When ligands surround it, they split the d orbitals into different E levels. e- can then absorb visible light and move to a higher E level. The remaining reflected light is the color we see. |
| why are Zn, Cd, Hg, and Cn colorless (white) even though they are transition metals | these metals are exceptions because their d orbitals are full. |
| what color is Cu | blue |
| what color of Zn | white |
| what color are Group I and II elements | white -they don't have any d e- |
| what color is Mn+2 | purple |
| what color is Mn+6 | green |
| what color is Mn+4 | brow/black |
| what color is Mn+2 | pink |
| why does Mn have so many different colors? | it can exist in multiple oxidation states. Each one has a different number of d electrons, which changes the E gaps between the d orbitals. |
| why the rule about different colors for different oxidation states mainly applies to transition metals with partially filled d orbitals | for transition metals, a different oxidation states → different numbers of d electrons → different d–d electron transitions → different colors. |
| for simple compounds of main elements and transition metals, d electrons are the main ones responsible for visible colors. | |
| flame test | put excessive energy in to something, causing the e- to jump. The color of the flames can hint at the structure of the substance |
| flame test: Li | red |
| Flame test: Na | yellow |
| Flame test: K | violet |
| Flame Test: Cs | blue |
| strong acids list | HCL - hydrochloric HBr - hydrobromic HI - hydriodic HNO3 - nitric HClO4 - perchloric, and HClO3, H2SO4 - sulfuric |
| strong bases list | group I and Sr, Ba, Ca hydroxides Ca(OH)2 Sr(OH)2 Ba(OH)2 |
| NBA chart: neutral anions (anything neutral is a spectator ion) | Cl-, Br-, I-, NO3-, ClO4- -all the anions from the strong acids (except SO4) |
| NBA chart: neutral cations | Li+, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Ca, Ba, Sr (group 1 + SrBaCa) -excpet francium cause they only appear during radioactive decay and don't last long |
| NBA chart: basic anions | HCO3- HS F- CO3-2 S-2 PO4-3 CN- NO2- HPO4 SO4-2 CH3COO |
| NBA chart: basic cations | none -positive ions can't consume a positive ion (bases accept H+) -they can't produce OH- on their own -NOTE: amines are usually basic |
| NBA chart: acidic anions | HSO4 H2PO4 |
| NBA chart: acidic cations | Mg+2 Al+3 NH4+ transitions |
| how to write net neutralizationequations for acid/base rxns | -all aq -always a single arrow -leave out spectator ions (SA & SB: ion that is not H or OH is a spectator ion) -for ionic compounds, anything but H or OH is a sp. ion -if you can't make HOH then just stick them together |
| formation equations reminder | BREAK UP POLYATOMICS |
| solubility rules 1 and 2 | Group 1, NH4+1, NO3-, and CH3COO-1 never form precipitate (alawys soluble) -NOTE: this rule takes precedence over all other rules!!! |
| solubility rule 3 | halogens for ppt with Ag, Pb, and Hg (along with all ion versions of these, EX Pb+2, Pb+4, etc) |
| solubility rule 4 | SO4-2 forms ppt with Ag, Pb, Hg, Ca, Sr, Ba |
| solubility rule 5 | OH-1 forms ppt with everything excpet Ca, Sr, and Ba |
| solubility rule 6 | PO4-3, CrO4 -2, CO3 -2, HCO3-1, Cr2O7-2, all form precipitate |
| solubility rule 7 | S-2 all form ppt excpet with group II |
| what type of reaction is combustion | it is ALWAYS redox Combustion is basically burning a fuel in oxygen, usually producing CO₂ and H₂O if it’s a hydrocarbon: Carbon loses electrons → oxidation Oxygen gains electrons → reduction |
| what type of reaction is precipitate | t is NEVER rexdox Precipitation reactions are double displacement reactions. They swap ions, form a solid, but do not involve oxidation or reduction. |
| balancing equations for redox reactions | 1. split into 2 1/2 equ (1 ox & 1 red) 2. balance atoms for each equ (neutral solutions: can + water if needed, acidic + H+ and/or H2O, basic + OH- & H20) 3. multiply so # of e- in each equ is the same 4. + up equ & cancle |
| when balancing redox equations, how to check ur answer | 1. look at which atoms are losing and gaining electrons -see if this transaction gives one atom a full sheel, full hald shell, etc (lower energy state) 2. your total charge on each side of the arrow must be equal |
| balancing redox equations for basic solutions (staring by pretending its an acid) | 1. if the # of O is uneven, add H2O to that side 2. add the nessesary amount of H+ ions to the other side 3. balance the e- 4. multiply so the # of e- is the same for both sides 5. add and cancle equations |
| balancing redox equations for basic solutions (finish) | 6. the number of H+ ions is the # of OH ions you add to both sides (1OH + 1H = 1H2O) 7. substract the # of H2O mcs (on the side w/ fewest mcs from both sides) NOTE: OH & H+ are alaways aq |
| combustion exceptions | if there isn't enough O2 to produce CO2, produce CO or C instead or if there is not C to form CO2, then just stick the fuel and the O2 together |
| rules for generic rxns | 1. synthesis: multiple reactants and one product 2. decomposition: one reactant and multiple products 3. single replacement: looks like sm is being replaced double replacement: looks like the compounds are switching partners 4. combustion |
| what is contradicory about single or double replacement reactions with aq reactants. | The aqu compounds dissociated in water so they are not acctually bonded. How can they switch partners if they are not accutally bonded? When writing the rxn, remember to separate aq compounds and cancle out any spectator ions. |
| rules for specific rxns | 1. Group II or I + HOH 2. Hydrides + HOH= H2 + metal hydroxide 3. metal oxides + HOH = OH + ion 4. nonmetal oxides + HOH = acids 5. Ligands + metal ion = complex ion 6. ligand substitution 7. carbonates or bicarbonates + H+ = HOH + CO2 + cation |
| Group II or I + water | (exothermic + H2 = explosion) Group 1 → “2 metals + 2 water → 2 hydroxide + H₂ + ion” Group 2 → “1 metal + 2 water → 1 hydroxide + H₂ + ion” |
| what is a hydride | a H that is at a -1 oxidation state -it is unstable and therefore highly reactive |
| what happens when water gains e- | it becomes OH- and H2 2H2O+2e- --> H2+2OH- |
| what happens when water loses e- | it forms O2 and H+ H2O --> 1/2O2(g) +2H+ + 2e- |
| why do bases often contain nonmetals and acids often contain metals? | |
| note for equations involving hydrides | -it will be aq so metal OH is written as separate ions |
| common ligands | H2O, NH3, CN-, OH-, Halogens |
| ligand substitution | a new, more concetrated one can push the other ligand out EX: [Cu(H2O)6]²⁺ + 4 NH3 → [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]²⁺ + 4 H2O |
| polyatomic ions REVIEW THEM PLS | |
| rules for Group I and II rxns | they participate in many different synthesis rxns: 1. w/ hydrogen forms hydrides 2. W/ oxygen: -Li & Group II = normal oxides (O-2) OR Na & Ba = peroxides (O2-2) 3. w/ Nitrogen: Li & Group II (except Be) --> synthesis rxn 4. w/ sulfur: systhesis |
| what does a little triangle above the arrow of a rxn mean | that the reactants were heated |
| rxn for when something is heated | carbonates --> metallic oxide + CO2 |
| different type of rxns for organic rxns | 1. addition - a small mc adds across a Double or Triple bond 2. substitution: an atom is replaced by a different atom (benzene) 3. Esterification: Carboxylic acid + Alcohol --> water |
| what is an addition organic reaction | Double & triple bonds contain a π bond (weaker than a single). IT breaks & new atoms attach to the 2 carbons. 1. π bond breaks 2. Each C forms a new single bond w/ atoms from small molecule. 3. molecule becomes more saturated (fewer multiple bonds). |
| why substitution for organic rxns happens with benzene | It has a very stable ring of delocalized e-. If the ring did an addition rxn, it would break the stability. Instead, benzene keeps the ring intact and replaces one hydrogen with another atom or group. NOTE: SA can form in benzene even if it can't in HOH |
| why cant SA be formed in water | Strong acids cannot exist in water because they donate their proton to water, forming H₃O⁺, the strongest acid possible in aqueous solution. |
| what is esterification | It’s a rxn where a carboxylic acid (–COOH) reacts w/ an alcohol (–OH group) to form an ester (–COO–) & H2O. *–OH from acid & H from the alcohol combine to make H₂O, and rest of the mcs join together as an ester. R–COOH + R’–OH → R–COO–R’ + H₂O |
| instructions for writing net equations | 1. if aqwouse write as separate ions and don't include spectator ions 2. write the whole formula for solids and gases 3. Balance using the lowest whole numbers 4. states are optional, but may help in some rxns |
| Alkyne (like C₂H₂) + concentrated halogen (Cl₂ or Br₂) | Alkynes have a triple bond Concentrated halogen reacts 2x cauz the triple bond has 2 π bonds Both halogen molecules attach → triple bond fully gone → saturated with halogens. -concentrated means take the rxn as far forwards as possible |
| Alkyne + dilute halogen | Only one π bond reacts → forms a dihaloalkene, leaving a double bond. One halogen pair (like Cl2) adds → triple bond becomes double bond → unsaturation remains. only one π bond reacts |
| Metal ion + weak base | hydroxide precipitate |
| Metal hydroxide precipitate + excess ligand → soluble complex (if the metal likes that ligand) | soluble ammine complex Some metal hydroxides are amphoteric or can form complexes with ligands. Ammonia (NH₃) acts as a ligand, replacing water/OH⁻ around the metal: Result: solid dissolves, forming a clear complex. |
| NOTE: ammonia and water are alawys at equilibrium with NH4(OH) so treat them as one chemical | |
| Review organic chemiistry from last year | |
| hydrocarbons | made from C and H -lightweight ones are gases, most are liquids, and some big ones are solids -a bunch of carbons bonded covalently w/ hydrogens sticking off whereever enededto give C four bonds |
| Alkanes | CnH2n + 2 -the number of H is double the # of C+ 2 -all single bonds -AKA saturated hydrocarbons |
| Alkenes | CnH2n H is 2x the number of C -one or more double bond -AKA unsaturated hydrocarbon |
| Alkynes | CnH2n-2 -double the # of C and subtract 2 -one or more triple bond -AKA saturated hydrocarbon |
| what does saturated mean (orgaic chemistry) | it has as many bonds as it can -it can't attach any more hydrogens |
| usaturated def (organic chemistry) | A saturated compound is an organic molecule that contains only single bonds between carbon atoms. This means all the carbon atoms are “full” of hydrogen atoms—there are no double or triple bonds. |
| naming straight chain Hydrocarbons | 1. find # of C in longest row (the row can bend) & choose corresponding prefix 2. find the type of h.c. (alkanes end in "ane", alkenes w/ "ene", alkynes w/"yne") 5. number (which C it's next to) the double or triple bond # - prefix.ending |
| NOTE: when writing the names of organic mcs, always go with the lowest nuumber -EX: if a double bond is between carbons 2 and 3 then write 2, | |
| prefixes in organic chemistry | 1- meth 2- eth 3- prop 4-but 5 - pent 6- hex 7- hept 8- oct 9- non 10 - dec |
| naming branches | Branch names end with “-yl.” Use a prefix based on the number of carbons in the branch. Number the carbon on the main chain where the branch attaches. -the branch name comes before the name of the main chain |
| naming halogenated hydrocarbons | -same process as before except: -number which C the halogen is attached to & add a special prefix (fluoro, Chloro, bromo, iodo ) in front of the main-chain's name -if there's more than 1 chain of halogen, use a normal prefix before the special one |
| cyclic structures | CnH2n (assuming all single bonds) -molecules where the carbon atoms form a ring |
| naming cyclic structures (alkanes) | Use the prefix “cyclo-” before the name of the ring, use prefiz for the # of C in the ring, end in "ane " name branches like normal |
| aromatic structures def | a hydrocarbon containing a benzene ring Benzene: C6H6 6-carbon ring with alternating single and double bonds in the Lewis structure. (these bonds are in resonance) |
| why are the three double bonds in benzene resonance | the electrons in the π bonds are delocalized across the ring -I honestly dunno learn this later |
| naming aromatic molecules | :-use a prefix for the number of C in the branch, then label the carbon on the benzene ring where the branch attaches, and use "benzene as a suffix -also number the corners of the benzene |
| alternate naming system for when there are two branches on a benzene (the system works no matter the size of the branch, it only depends on the location of the branches) | Ortho = banches on 1 and 2 meta = 1, 3 para = 1, 4 |
| list the functional groups (oxygenated hydrocarbons) | alcohols aldehydes carboxylic acids amines ethers ketones esters carbonyl |
| resonance VS isomers VS duplicates -practice idenifying which is which | Duplicate → same bonds, just a different view Resonance → same atoms, but different bond positions isomers --> atoms actually move around to form different structures. |
| alcohols | R-OH polar NOT Hydroxide!! |
| why isn't the OH in alcohols hydroxide | The –OH group is covalently bonded to carbon Oxygen shares electrons with hydrogen and carbon The whole molecule is neutral (no charge) So we call it a hydroxyl group, not hydroxide |
| How to name alcohols | use "-ol" ending OR use the alkyl name ("-yl") plus the word "alcoh ol" |
| aldehydes | O || R -C- H |
| naming aldehydes | use al ending |
| carboxylic acids | O || R - C - OH -sometimes written as R- COOH |
| naming carboxylic acids | use prefix for the number of carbons and then end in "-oic acid" |
| carbonyl group | O || C |
| amines | R-NH2 |
| naming amines | use the suffix "amine" and name the carbon chain like a branch (# - # of carbons + "yl") |
| Ethers | -O- |
| naming ethers | name the alky group on either side of the ether (treat them like a branch) and add "ether" at the end |
| Ketones | O || R-C - R |
| naming ketones | name the alkyl group on either side and end with the word "ketone" |
| esters | O || R-C - O -R' |
| naming ethers | name both Rs separaelty The group attached to oxygen (R′) → named first as alkyl (ends in –yl) The chain with the carbonyl (R–COO–) → becomes –oate |
| common reaction involving ____(you should know this) | the formation of ester Carboxylic acid + Alcohol --> water + ester -the H on the acid and the OH on the alcohol will pop off, they will combine to form water -the R that remais fromthe alcohol will attachto the O in the acid (replacing the H) |
| isomers | same formula , different structure -different versions of the same formula |
| Isomers VS resoance | isomers: Different arrangement of atoms You could actually isolate them as separate substances Resonance: Same atoms, same connections Only e- move, not atoms Double bond shifts position Atoms stay in the same place different drawings of the same mc |
| radioactive decay | an unstable nucleus loses energy by releasing particles or radiation to become more stable. Some atoms have too many neutrons, too many protons, or an unstable balance, so the nucleus breaks down to become more stable |
| different particples released during radioactive decay | alpha (α) Emits: 2 pt+ 2 n (He nucleus) 4_2He beta (β⁻), n turns into a pt & emits an e- (0_-1e) Atomic # +1 & Mass # stays the same (releases E is 100x > α gamma (γ) - releases E (no particles) (0_0γ) No change in atomic # or mass |
| half-life def | length of time it takes for half of radioactive atoms to decay |
| equations for half-life | ln([A]o/[A]t) = Kt Ao = orginal amount of substance At = stuff that remains after t k= constant (solve for this using the next formula) t= any time unit t1/2 = 0.693/k -or plug 2/1 into the first equation and the 1/2 life into the t to find K |
| half-life is alaways | 1st order |
| for 1st order reactions, what is the unit of K | (time units)^-1 |
| bombardment reactions | you hit/bombard a nucleus w/ sm (e-, pt, n, atoms) -a stable nucleus is converted to one that is radioactive by being bombarded |
| what do the following mass and atomic numbers mean 4 &2, 0&-1, 0&0, 1&0, 1&1, 0&1 | He e- y n H or pt ??? |
| what does mass spectroscopy do | an analytical technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of ions -the mass spectrium of a sample contraining a single elecment can be used to determine the identify of the isotopes of that element and the relative abundnac eof each isotope |
| mass spectroscopy | ions (neutral mcs won’t react to magnetic fields) go in magnetic fields & are deflected based on mass:charge ratio (m/z). lighter ions or w/ higher charge deflect more. Makes spectrum w/ a # of ions @ each m/z value. In simple atoms, 1 peak = diff. isot. |
| Mass spectrum chart | x-axis (horizontal), m/z (mass-to-charge ratio), Tells you the mass of the ion divided by its charge y-axis (vertical): Relative abundance (or intensity), Shows how many ions of that m/z reach the detector, Higher peak = more abundant ion |
| how to find the most likely atomic number of an atom using the chart | |
| how to calculate that atomic mass given that the percent mass and mass number of isotopes | 1. change the percent into a decimal (divide by 100) 2. multiply by mass # 3. add them together 4. units are amu |
| mass defect | a neucleus weighs less than the individual protons and neutrons of which it is composed the difference in mass is called the mass defect |
| how to calculate the mass defect | 1. find # of pt and n in nucleus 2. find how much each pt and n weighs (value from chart) & multiply by # from step 1 3. add pt and n values together 4. subtract the accutal weight of the isotope's nucleus (found in chart) 5. units = g/mol |
| nuclear binding energy | -the missing mass is used as energy to hold the nucleus togther - |
| how to calulate nuclear binding energy | E = mc^2 e = binding E in J m = mass in kg c = speed of light (3.00x10^8 m/s) |
| fission | -nuclear reactors, atom bombs -splitting the atom -heavy wt nuclei --> lighter wt. nuclei -an atom is hit w/ a neutron and splits, producing more neutrons (chain rxn when these new neutrons hit other atoms) |
| Fusion | -research reactors and thermonuclear bombs -sticking atoms together -light wt. nuclei --> heavy wt. nuclei + E |
| products of electrolysis in water solutions (cations) | 1.cations reduce to correstponding metal (usually a tran.) Cu+2(aq) + 2e---> Cu(s) 2. H+ reduces to H2 in SA 2H + (aq)+ 2e- --> H2(g) 3. H2O mcs reduce for Group 1, 2, & Al (they are harder to reduce than H2O) 2H2O+ 2e- -->H2(g) + 2OH-(aq) |
| products of electrolysis in water solutions (anions) ? | 1. anions oxidized to nometal: 2Cl- --> Cl2(g) + 2e- 2.OH- ions oxidized to O2 in SB 2OH-(aq) -->1/2O2(g) +H2O +2e- 3. H2O mcs oxidized istead of NO3-, SO4-2, F- H2O --> 1/2O2(g) +2H+ + 2e- |
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