Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
HIST 250 Midterm
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Pleistocene | a geological epoch between 2.6 mya to 11.7 kya characterized by repeated glaciation & warming cycles |
| Holocene | 11.7kya to present (anthropocene), “goldilocks climate” not too warm or cold |
| When did Natives come? What is the evidence? | Some time near the end of the Pleistocene (12k-20k before present): evidence is nonhuman fossils, human fossils & artifacts, trace descent of languages & changes in genetics |
| Beringia | Ice free passageways (32-24ka & 16-10 ka), not just people but animals come too Ancestors of modern camels, dogs, & horses Linguistic Evidence Stone Age Extinctions Controversy |
| Paleoindian | 1st human occupiers of Americas |
| Archaic | 1st descendents of paleoindians (hunting, gathering, fishing, less nomadic but roughly same tools) |
| Woodland/formative | emergence of agriculture, funerary mounds, ceramics (1200BCE-800CE) |
| Mississippian | sedentary farmers of interior riverine region of eastern NA (800-1500 CE), towns & kingdoms |
| Ethno-historic | native peoples as encountered by Europeans |
| Religion Pre-contact | Localist: different in different regions (hunter-gatherers, agricultural associated gods) |
| Economics Pre-Contact | Based on fish, plants, & resources (nuts, other animals) Reflects geographies & the kind of Native society in the area Maize & cotton: cultures oriented around them (evidences of agriculture trading) |
| Population Density | more population density where hunting/gathering is easier/can be supported by agriculture |
| Trade | Trade routes all across the Americas (barter, diplomacy, exchange of peoples) |
| Hierarchies? | Less hierarchal (generally) regarding gender than Afro-Eurasians |
| What caused decline & disappearance? | Some societies declined & disappeared because of environmentally unsustainable things like drought) |
| Mythologies | stories we tell to make sense of things, who a people are, affirm a way of life, their place on the land across time |
| Navajo Creation story | 1st man & woman, existed/talked w/ nonhuman“people”(animals/insects). Conflicts in each world led to them having to flee. Eventually, they got here, emphasis on harmony w/ others-importance of social life, peace, & good relationships w/ community |
| Iroquois Creation Story | Describes how the world was created on a giant sea turtle and ancestors fell from the sky, conflict between 2 brothers, emphasizes good & evil, the important role of women in Native society, & a need for balance in the world: in society & individual lives |
| Hopi Creation Story | People came from underground, met Maasaw (caretaker of Earth) told them to care for it & find “centerplace”. Home would be found when they saw a light in the sky. Eventually settled in SW. Focus on peaceful/respectful relationships w/ each other & world |
| Choctaw Creation Story | 2 hunters found a woman dressed in white on a mound. She was hungry, they gave her the only game they had(hawk) B/c of this, she promised to repay them & disappearedw/ a corn plant in her place.Corn & mound= vital part of life, focus on generosity |
| French Interactions w/ Natives | focus on trade, fur, missions, exploration, military alliance, relatively small settlements, diplomatic relations |
| Spanish Interactions w/ Natives | looting, forced labor (on plantations, in mines), missions, conquering large & densely settled empires (asserting control) |
| English Interactions w/ Natives | Focus on settlements (desire for land), missions (limited) |
| Key Points of European Interactions w/ Natives #1 | New world for Natives & Europeans, greater ethnocentrism among English & less interaction w/ Natives compared to Spanish & French, secure European beachheads by late 1600s |
| Key Points of European Interactions w/ Natives #2 | most Natives in NA remained untouched by direct contact in 1600s, but experienced a slow infiltration of European goods, diseases, plants/animals, ideas, & eventually people. |
| Traditions & Encounters #1 | Unusual stories of contact (Cabeza de Vaca, Powhatan/Pocahontas) |
| Traditions & Encounters #2 | European context: Reconquista, trade & tribute off coast of Africa, English conquest/colonization in Ireland, wars of religion & state formation across Europe, ethnocentrism, old world diseases |
| English Warfare Tactics | In Ireland 1500s-1600s, tactics learned from these previous conflicts (warfare similar to how they fought in other circumstances) |
| War Among Native Americans | Raiding, Mourning Wars, Ritualized torture/killing, decisive war |
| Raiding | Raiding for economic needs (goods, captives, food, sacred objects) |
| Mourning Wars | captives to replace those captured/lost from their community to uphold honor |
| Ritualized Torture/Killing | seen as barbaric by Europeans, Natives understood each other. Honor to both communities in the process. Some battles more like an athletic contest (counting coup) |
| Total Decisive War | Some evidence (pre contact evidence in the deep past, more evidence after 1000, Aztec conquest of Mexico, Inca conquest in Peru/use of forced removal, Iroquois-Huron (Wendat) conflict in 1600s stirred up by the French) |
| Militarization? | Native societies were militarized in different ways than European states |
| What's to lose? | European “frontiers” vs. Native “homelands”(difference in terms of cost of losing) |
| European Beliefs & Wants | European desires for more for themselves, belief that Natives are savage |
| European "Helpers" | English claim to have helped the Natives survive by giving them tools like knives and hatchets |
| How were Natives seen by Europeans? | Natives seen as “savages” & one-dimensional role, war was seen as a divine punishment & ordeal to test colonists and blamed Natives as instigators of the conflict, exotic & unequal |
| How do Europeans view treaties? | Focus on what was written down (binding) |
| Spanish California Missions Context | Fur trade, reconquista in Spain & religious war post-Reformation, fierce European religiosity, resourcing from monarchy in Spain & gov in New Spain, disease/technology/conquest/politics affect missions |
| Spanish California Missions & Why they Failed | A true middle ground never developed (coercion & Spanish power) Sexual morals of Natives seen as immoral Views & goals of friars: restrict interracial relations, eventually accept legal mixed marriages Prostitution & sexual assault, disease |
| How did Native peoples respond to Europeans? | Fighting for tribal homelands & independence against expansion, French & Indian Wars |
| Spanish Treatment of Natives | persecution, labor demands, abuse of women |
| Diplomacy for Natives | More about peace, trade, & land negotiations (gift exchanges) than about written agreements, diplomacy in Europe, Focus on gift giving & the importance of the meeting (what was said & done) |
| Limited/in-decisive vs. total/decisive forms of war | modest tactical advantage or not total control of enemy vs. trying to take control/conquer a territory and the people in it. |
| Pan-Indianism | multi-tribal coalitions |
| Dutch & Natives | Initial good relations with the Dutch. The English arrive and want to make a strong league w/ the Natives too. |
| Native & European Land Disputes | Natives owned the land far before Europeans arrived. Natives entrusted some to the English & were told they could use it. They were deceived and were generously paid again for their lands. |
| Native Warfare Decisions | The English allied with some Natives to fight the French. Natives assessed the situation, weighed options, & made decisions.Mostly they tried to restore peace & harmony before fighting (try to come to an agreement) |
| Native Initial Reactions To Europeans | Natives could’ve easily killed off the white people initially but didn’t because they wanted to live at peace. Now the white people are taking their land. |
| Native Treatment of other Natives & Europeans | Viewing Europeans as exotic & unequal Sometimes sold other Natives’ land to Europeans Shifting loyalties & identities Sometimes the first people encroaching on Native land was other Natives |
| Assess the impact of European contact and European-Native relations on Native peoples. Disaster? | Fear of losing sovereignty & land (sometimes Europeans take land & trade by force rather than peaceably) |
| Horses & Guns | Spread of horses & guns made migration possible, led to lots of raids, captives, slaves, sedentary tribes become weaker over time, some Natives continue to hold power |
| Sweet Medicine | foretelling of the coming of the horse |
| Tribes That Greatly Benefit from Horse Trade | Comanche, Kiowa, Arapaho, Cheyenne (dominate horse trade in S Plains) |
| Foretelling of the Horse | Creator Maheo told the Cheyenne people that horses would benefit them but would require sacrifice (buffalo & ecological decline) |
| Northern Plains & Horses #1 | Smaller potential for wealth because of harsher climate Some continue to farm, Hide & pemmican trade Undermined egalitarian ethos: multiple wives for more labor for preparing hides/goods |
| Northern Plains & Horses #2 | More conflicts between tribal groups (competition) Growing contact w/ Europeans, decline of horse-buffalo economy Dramatic opportunities for new wealth, male-warrior culture, ecological basis for flourishing begins to fray |
| Bison Decline | More horses=growing demand on environment (less resources) Climate change shift in 1800s to drier weather (ranges shrink) Growing number of non-Natives on Plains (used buffalo hides for belts in steam machines, rail roads/better guns=more hunting) |
| Bison & Native Rights | Natives could hunt buffalo as long as there were enough to “justify the chase” |
| Women & Horses | Women help process game, roles change later. Polygamy increased (loss of power), economic hierarchies (more wives for rich men, fewer for poor men, gap in wealth increases) |
| Changes for Natives (land) | Emergence of private property values among Natives (trade groups, not land) |
| Changes for Natives (post-war) | Disaster after war: violence from settlers, Indian removal, treaties adapted from British policies define their territories & protect boundaries but settlers & local governments undermine this. |
| Disease & Change | Diseases like smallpox, malaria or measles kill many Natives (seen as God’s plan to make a way for Europeans or as a punishment by the Bad Spirit) Way of life beginning to fray, no raiding/wars/hunting Hit sedentary peoples more than nomads |
| Missions & Change | Forced missions bring resentment & violence, adaptation to new religions as a way to survive. |
| Vanishing Indians | Emergence of new identities amid change (blend of ideals, rejection of accommodating new things, pan-Indianism) |
| Why did the US want more land? | John L O’Sullivan & Manifest Destiny (growing populations require more land, a politically God-given mission of liberty & freedom in “their” land, need for land for “Cotton Kingdom”) |
| Removal | Indians seen as ill-equipped to adapt. Reservations were out of the way & gave them time to adapt “They can’t stand in the way of human progress” |
| Cherokee Removal | Cherokees: civilized but American desires for gold & economic growth & racism led to the Trail of Tears Eventually some fall into alcoholism |
| Surplus Land? | Less time hunting (more time farming) meant they needed less land & could sell the “extra” to the US. Too much land for them would disincentivize them to become civilized. |
| Adaptations | Some Chiefs try to adapt their peoples to best survive in the new nation, some move west voluntarily while others refuse to abandon ancestral lands |
| Slavery | racialized attitudes towards African Americans |
| Nadir | Low point of Indian life in NA in 1890, about 240,000 Indians left according to the BIA, about 270,000 according to the census. Today scholars estimat about 500,000. Another 100,000 in Canada & about 30,000 in Alaska |
| Revitalization Movements | Usually viewed as backward-looking; also modern (pan-Indian, not nation-specific, more religious than political, promoted social-cultural adaptation, draw on traditions in inventive ways) |
| Religious Movements | Prophet Dance, Smohalla's Dreamer Religion, The Shakers, The Ghost Dance, Peyote religion |
| Prophet Dance | Confession dance of sins to prepare for doomsday, yet hopeful. Those who were killed would return. |
| Smohalla's Dreamer Religion | Influenced Chief Joseph, visions, Mormon & Catholic influence, contempt for non-Indians, dancing, church-like service similarities, return to the way of the past |
| The Shakers | Spiritual visions, twitching while singing & praying, Catholicism influences, morality, temperance |
| The Ghost Dance | Precursor: 1870(Wobziwob),Wovoka picks some up in 1880s(doesn't catch until right time),cataclism(world transformed),reunited w/ resurrected people/buffalo,whites disappear,20K+ followers in 1890s-10% Indians in W, flexible,pan-Indian,Christian influence |
| Peyote Religion | Native American church, individual redemption, roots in Apache, cactus seeds (peyote)=hallucinogen, medicinal & spiritual practices, fire circle, altar, drums/rattles, prayers, feasting, Christian elements, moral order & sobriety, hostile to ghost dance |
| Why Revitalization? | Recapture a golden past, rid society of alien/corrupting/negative influences, develops from prophets & elements of other Native/European religions. Spreads on railroads & at boarding schools, instructions for good ways to survive in the reservation era |
| How did Europeans view revitalization? | Missionaries, reformers, & government officials see these as corrupt & immoral (mix of tradition, innovation, & religions) |
| New Ways of Life | Deerskin trade declined & cotton kingdom expands (adjust to new economic conditions) |
| Other Notes about Reservation Life | Natives seen as culturally inferior & incapable of change, doomed race, actively fighting for themselves, Loss of land=loss of rights for women (their domain), rez still didn’t mean they wouldn’t be affected-CA gold rush=traveling thru Indian territory |
| Allotment | new lands under pressure, land broken into small pieces & given some as individuals, "friends of the Indian", "kill the Indian & save the man", the "magic" of private property (trying to individualize Natives) |
| General Allotment Act (Dawes Severalty Act) | surplus lands open for settlement, divides Lakota into 6 separate reservations, breaks up land holdings to individuals |
| Allotment led to... | End of middle ground & close of frontiers as zones of interaction, adaptation to farming/ranching (but not breaking up of communal patterns normally), diversity of responses (some worked it to their advantage as better land protection) |
| What does gold discovery lead to for Natives? | Gold discovery led to disease, starvation, exploitative labor systems, enslavement, & murder (single men going to the gold fields put Indigenous women in a dangerous position, some turn to prostitution) |
| Navajo Long Walk | confined to barren lands, faced malnutrition & disease, bad water, drought, & grasshopper swarms. Some gov provided rations but were sometimes unfit for consumption |
| Morrill Act | distributed public lands to states to raise funds for colleges turning almost 11 million acres of Indian land into seed money for land grant colleges |
| Pacific Railroad Act | Financed the building of transcontinental railroad that would unite the E&W. Some Native laborers, more people move W. |
| Native Survival | Defending the W militarily & culturally, pragmatic choices-Sitting Bull in Buffalo Bill shows, scouts=chance to continue to hold part of their identities as warriors, Prophetic/apocalyptic movements toward the end of Indian Wars |
| Ledger Art | show old ways of life pre-contact, battles, diplomatic relations, a sense of trying to determine where their place is in the future |
| Popular Mythologies | invasion of paradise vs. advance of civilization |
| Frontier-Thesis | European encounter a new world (leave behind the old & adapt to the new) |
| Metropolitan-periphery frontier model | Influence of old world on frontier |
| Frontiers | Frontiers as “zones of interaction” between “intruders” and “indigenous” peoples (conflict & interaction) |
| Borderlands | contested zones where imperial frontiers overlapped & indigenous peoples are major actors (homelands for them), multiracial.cultural meeting places of peoples where geographic/economic/cultural borders were not clearly defined |
| Middleground Relations | combined cultural components, tension |
| Indian Expansion | not just European expansion (Iroquois, Sioux, Comanche) |
| Movement of People & Goods | Columbian exchange/biological imperialism not just about people (plants/animals) |
| Conclusions about Conquest | Avoid assuming the inevitability of European conquest (denies Native agency). People make their own history but not under circumstances of their own choosing.Many sides to the relations not simply European-Native relations |
| Power Dynamics | Major factor in determining the nature of European-Native relations, Relative balance=middleground relations,mostly limited wars (sought tactical advantages), Significant imbalance= wars of conquest & destruction & ultimately Euro-American domination. |
| American Imperialism | liberty & independence vs. taking over other countries? “Civilization” & governing them until they can govern themselves Buffalo Bill: scenes of imperialism & conquest |
| Context of 7 Years War | alliances in Europe (British & Prussia, Dutch, France & Austria) & conflicts among competing European powers competing for influence in areas like India & Indonesia; colonies in areas like NA (global war-involves NA, South Asian, & European theater) |
| After 7 Years War | French mostly give up colonies in US b/c fur trade/alliances not as valuable as they thought economically. Islands in the Caribbean(sugar)=more $, Land ceded to British(betrayal),British hope to reduce relations w/ natives as they no longer have F ally |
| Proclamation Line | no settling on the other side of the line. Leads to Revolution as settlers feel they are denied land. |
| Pueblo Revolt | Pope killed 400 & drove out 2k. Desire to return to life pre-Spanish (control). Spanish belief that Native gods are “the devil” Religious coercion=rebellion & desire to go back to religious traditions/syncretism rather than replacing their culture |
| Pontiac's War & pan-Indianism | alliance of native nations, forces Amherst to change policy (he wanted to end Middle Ground) |
| Revolutionary War | Treaty of Paris: Indian “loyalists”, left out of treaties Many side w/ British-against the > threat to their way of life Heavy casualties, American neighbors took land while they were away, Shattered unity of 6 Iroquois nations: divided alliances |
| War of 1812 | conflict continues between British & US: British maintain middle ground alliances |
| Pressure on Land & Goods | Economic decline, demographic pressures (fur trade decline & encroaching settlers) |
| Native Decisions about Revolutionary War | Shatterzones & political divisions, Oneida neutrality: seen as a Civil War Cherokee: Americans are incursing on their territory, unjust warfare, identify settlers as Americans so they side w/ the British to combat this loss of land |
| Creek War | 800 Creeks killed by Jackson’s army in one of a series of devastating campaigns, leads to a large cession of land |
| Black Hawk War | massacre as people tried to escape across the Mississippi, some who did escape were killed by Sioux |
| Mexican-American War | Indian massacres justify military dispossessions & reprisals, driven onto rez, Cavalry, Guadalupe Hidalgo(1848), US acquires more land (land given to them, but not the Mexicans to give)Millions of acres of tribal homelands ceded to US |
| US & Indian Wars | US Clash w/ Sioux, Cheyenne & Arapaho alliance over safe passage for immigrants-want to restrict Natives to designated areas to < intertribal conflict,1st Treaty of Fort Laramie |
| 1st Treaty of Fort Laramie | delegates from all major powers of N Plains, promises to respect tribal boundaries, falls apart a few yrs later |
| Civil War | US thought winning the W would restore the nation’s unity & heal wounds after,Temporarily slows W expansion as soldiers go to war, Natives enlist on both sides, many Cherokees fight for the S, told they had broken their treaties w/ the US because of this |
| Great Sioux Uprising | verge of starvation for Dakota Sioux leads to conflict, 400 of them put on trial for murder & 38 executed. |
| Sand Creek Massacre | Gold discovery in CO, 1000s of people come (destroy Cheyenne way of life)Tensions escalate,colonists fear uprising b/c troops were away. 3rd CO Cavalry attacked a peaceful village b/c of their fear, which led to retaliation & made fear a reality. |
| Buffalo War | Americans attack an encampment of Comanches, Kiowas, & S Cheyennes burning 400 lodges & killing 1400 ponies |
| 2nd Treaty of Fort Laramie | US agrees to abandon Bozeman Trail (even though a railroad was already built in the area making it no longer worth fighting for) |
| US Attacks of Native Villages | US Cavalry attacks a village of Blackfeet in MT in January 1870. The people were recovering from smallpox & were killed. Many who survived starved or froze to death afterwards. |
| Custer's Last Stand | seen as martyrs for the cause of Westward expansion in a clash between savagery & civilization. Reality: command likely broke down, discipline disintegrated, & the men died in a series of desperate actions. |
| Geronimo | rebellion, fighting for survival rather than starving or leaving their lands & ways of life behind. Caught by other Chiricahuas & Americans, who shipped all Chiricahuas to a military prison in FL (even those who helped them) |
| Wounded Knee | Ends Plains Indian Wars, US 7th Cavalry kills approximately 300 Natives because of anxieties over the Ghost Dance movement |
Created by:
ashlyl28