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Endocrine&Reproduct
Endocrine and Reproductive System -ccma
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What Does the Endocrine System Do? | Fluid and electrolyte balance: Hormones such as aldosterone and ADH regulate salt and water levels to control blood pressure. |
| What Does the Endocrine System Do? Stress response: | Cortisol and adrenaline help the body cope with physical or emotional stress. |
| What Does the Endocrine System Do? Circadian rhythm: | Melatonin from the pineal gland helps control sleep and wake cycles. |
| What Are Hormones? | Hormones are powerful biochemical messengers that are produced by endocrine cells and secreted into the interstitial fluid or directly into the bloodstream. |
| target cells — | cells that have specific receptor proteins designed to bind to a particular hormone |
| Once a hormone binds to its receptor, it triggers a series of changes inside the target cell. This can involve: Activation or inhibition of? | gene expression & enzymes |
| Once a hormone binds to its receptor, it triggers a series of changes inside the target cell. This can involve: Increased or decreased ? | protein synthesis |
| Once a hormone binds to its receptor, it triggers a series of changes inside the target cell. This can involve: Changes in? | membrane permeability |
| Once a hormone binds to its receptor, it triggers a series of changes inside the target cell. This can involve: Alteration of | ion transport |
| How Hormones Work: A Closer Look | Hormones bind to receptors on the cell surface (water-soluble, e.g., insulin) or inside the cell (lipid-soluble, e.g., cortisol). This forms a hormone-receptor complex, triggering a series of biochemical reactions known as a signal transduction pathway. |
| Depending on the hormone and its target, the effects can be immediate — such | as adrenaline increasing heart rate within seconds |
| Depending on the hormone and its target, the effects can be gradual — such | like growth hormone stimulating tissue development over weeks. |
| Hormones may cause a cell to: | Create new proteins (important for growth and repair) Store or release energy (e.g., fat and glucose) Divide and multiply (cell growth) Change behavior (e.g., milk production, stress response) |
| The endocrine system works continuously to maintain these functions, often through _______ _________that adjust hormone levels in response to body needs. | feedback loops |
| The endocrine system is composed of specialized glands that produce and secrete hormones, which are chemical messengers responsible for regulating key processes such as | growth, metabolism, reproduction, and homeostasis. |
| Specialized glands are ________ ___________to ensure rapid hormone distribution | highly vascularized |
| Each gland is finely tuned by f___________ ________, primarily controlled by the hypothalamus and pituitary. | feedback mechanisms |
| Disorders of these glands can result in significant health issues, including | including metabolic diseases, growth abnormalities, and reproductive dysfunction |
| The endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream to regulate metabolism, growth, reproduction, and mood. Major glands include the | pituitary ("master gland"), thyroid (metabolism), pancreas (blood sugar), adrenals (stress), pineal (sleep), parathyroids (calcium), and reproductive glands (testes/ovaries) |
| Major Endocrine Glands and Functions : Hypothalamus | Located in the brain, just above the pituitary gland; integrates signals from nervous system and controls the release of hormones from the pituitary gland. Releasing and inhibiting hormones |
| Major Endocrine Glands and Functions : Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) | Location: Base of brain, beneath the hypothalamus ; Known as the "master gland," becuz it secretes hormones that regulates other endocrine glands |
| Major Endocrine Glands and Functions : Thyroid Gland | Located in the front of the neck below the larynx ; produces hormones (T3, T4) ; regulates metabolism , oxygen use, and energy production ; as well as blood glucose levels by stimulating glycogen breakdown in lover |
| Major Endocrine Glands and Functions : Parathyroid glands | four tiny, pea-sized endocrine glands located on the back of the thyroid in the neck, primarily responsible for regulating calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood and bones through the release of parathyroid hormone (PTH) |
| Major Endocrine Glands and Functions : Adrenal Glands | Located on top of each kidney; Helps body handle stress and control water/ salt balance ->b produce adrenaline (fight-or-flight response) , cortisol (stress management), and Aldosterone Keeps salt and water balanced |
| Major Endocrine Glands and Functions :Pancreas | Located : behind the stomach ; Produces insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar (glucose) levels. - Insulin: Lower , Glucagon : Raises |
| Major Endocrine Glands and Functions : Gonads (Ovaries & Teste) | Located: ovaries in females , testes in males . Controls sex hormones and reproduction. Estrogen& progesterone (female) and Testosterones (males ) |
| Major Endocrine Glands and Functions : Pineal Gland | Located: Deep in the brain; produces melatonin, which regulates the sleep-wake cycle (circadian rhythm). |
| Major Endocrine Glands and Functions: Thymus Gland | Located in the upper chest behind the sternum ; Stimulates T-cells (white blood cells) for development the immune system ; Primarily active in childhood |
| Called the “master gland,” plays a crucial role in regulating the activity of many other endocrine organs. It is responsible for initiating several hormonal pathways that affect growth, reproduction, metabolism, lactation, stress response, and more. | The pituitary gland |
| The Pituitary gland is structurally and functionally divided into two distinct lobes: | Anterior Pituitary ( Adenohypophysis) and Posterior Pituitary ( Neurohypophysis ) |
| Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis) | This lobe produces and secretes most of the pituitary’s hormones.responsible for synthesizing and releasing essential hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, reproduction,stress responses under hypothalamic control. It produces 6 hormones:GH, TSH, ACTH |
| the hypophyseal portal system | Specialized blood vessel system that allows travels of hormones |
| Key hormones of the anterior pituitary include: GH | (Growth Hormone): Stimulates tissue growth and repair |
| Key hormones of the anterior pituitary include: TSH | (Thyroid-stimulating hormone ) Stimulates the thyroid to produce T3 and T4 |
| Key hormones of the anterior pituitary include: ACTH | (Adrenocorticotropic hormone) Triggers cortisol release from the adrenal cortex. |
| Key hormones of the anterior pituitary include: FSH & LH | Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) & Luteinizing hormone (LH) Regulate ovulation and sperm production. |
| Key hormones of the anterior pituitary include: PRL | Prolactin: Promotes milk production. |
| Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis) | does not synthesize hormones, but rather stores and releases hormones produced by the hypothalamus. These hormones are transported down nerve axons into the posterior pituitary for storage and later release into the bloodstream |
| Hormones released by the posterior pituitary: Oxytocin: | Stimulates uterine contractions and milk ejection. |
| Hormones released by the posterior pituitary: ADH (Vasopressin): | Promotes water retention in the kidneys to maintain fluid balance. |
| The hormones from the pituitary follow a defined pathway—often called a | hormonal axis. |
| Hormonal Pathways and Feedback Loop : STEP 1 | Hypothalamus releases stimulating or inhibiting hormones. |
| Hormonal Pathways and Feedback Loop :STEP 2 | Anterior pituitary secretes tropic hormones into the bloodstream. |
| Hormonal Pathways and Feedback Loop : STEP 3 | Target endocrine glands (e.g., thyroid, adrenal cortex, gonads) are activated. |
| Hormonal Pathways and Feedback Loop :STEP 4 | Glands release secondary hormones like T3/T4, cortisol, or sex hormones. |
| Hormonal Pathways and Feedback Loop :STEP 5 | Hormones act on target organs and regulate physiological processes. |
| Hormonal Pathways and Feedback Loop : STEP 6 | Feedback to the hypothalamus and pituitary modulates further hormone release. |
| Thyroid Gland Pathway Explanation | Pituitary Hormone: Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Target Organ: Thyroid gland Function: Stimulates production of T3 and T4, regulating metabolic rate and energy production. Outcome: Increased cellular metabolism throughout the body. |
| Thyroid Gland Pathway TSH → Thyroid Hormones | Hypothalamus → TRH → Anterior Pituitary → TSH → Thyroid Gland → T3/T4 → Body Tissues |
| Adrenal Glands Pathway explanation | Pituitary Hormone: Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) Target Organ: Adrenal cortex Function: Stimulates cortisol release (stress response). Outcome: Mobilizes energy, reduces inflammation, supports blood pressure. |
| Adrenal Glands Pathway ACTH → Cortisol | Hypothalamus → CRH → Anterior Pituitary → ACTH → Adrenal Cortex → Cortisol → Body Tissues |
| Mammary Glands Pathway Explanation | Pituitary Hormone: Prolactin (PRL) Target Organ: Mammary glands Function: Promotes milk production after childbirth. Outcome: Lactation and maintenance of milk supply. |
| Mammary Glands Pathway PRL → Lactation | Hypothalamus → ↓ Dopamine → Anterior Pituitary → PRL → Mammary Glands |
| Female Reproductive Pathway Explanation | Pituitary Hormones: Luteinizing Hormone (LH) Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Target Organ: Ovaries Function: FSH stimulates follicles and estrogen; LH triggers ovulation and progesterone release. Outcome: Regulation of menstrual cycle and fertility. |
| Female Reproductive Pathway LH/FSH → Estrogen/Progesterone | Hypothalamus → GnRH → Anterior Pituitary → LH/FSH → Ovaries → Estrogen/Progesterone |
| Male Reproductive Pathway Explanation | Pituitary Hormones: Luteinizing Hormone (LH) and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) Target Organ: Testes Function: LH produces testosterone; FSH promotes sperm maturation. Outcome: Maintains male fertility and hormone levels. |
| Male Reproductive Pathway LH/FSH → Testosterone/Sperm | Hypothalamus → GnRH → Anterior Pituitary → LH/FSH → Testes → Testosterone/Spermatogenesis |
| Muscle and Bone Growth Pathway Explanation | Pituitary Hormone: Growth Hormone (GH) Target Tissues: Muscle, bone, cartilage Function: Promotes tissue growth and development. Outcome: Increased muscle, bone growth, and connective tissue repair. |
| Muscle and Bone Growth Pathway GH → Growth | Hypothalamus → GHRH → Anterior Pituitary → GH → Muscle/Bone → Growth and repair |
| Adipose (Fat) Tissue Pathway Explanation | Pituitary Hormone: Growth Hormone (GH) Target Tissue: Adipose tissue Function: Enhances fat breakdown and prevents fat accumulation. Outcome: Mobilization of stored energy; reduced fat. |
| Adipose (Fat) Tissue Pathway GH → Lipolysis | GH → Adipose Tissue → Fat metabolism (lipolysis) |
| The endocrine system relies on a finely tuned system of_______ _______ to maintain homeostasis and ensure that hormones are secreted only when needed. | feedback loops |
| There are two primary types of feedback loops in the endocrine system: | negative feedback loops, which are more common and stabilize physiological processes, and positive feedback loops, which are less common but drive processes to completion. |
| Negative Feedback Loop | Negative feedback is the most common mechanism for regulating hormone levels. It works to stabilize internal conditions by reversing changes once normal levels are restored |
| Negative Feedback Loop : Analogy | Think of a thermostat regulating temperature. When the room becomes too warm, the thermostat signals the heater to shut off. When it cools down, it signals the heater to turn back on—maintaining a constant, comfortable temperature. |
| Negative Feedback Loop : Example: Blood Glucose Regulation After a meal, blood sugar rises. The pancreas detects this and releases insulin, which helps lower glucose levels by promoting uptake into cells. When levels normalize, insulin secretion stops. | Stimulus: Glucose increases after eating Sensor: Pancreas detects rise, releases insulin Effector: Cells absorb glucose; liver stores glycogen Response: Glucose returns to normal Other Examples: Regulation of thyroid hormones (TSH), cortisol (ACTH) |
| Positive Feedback Loop | Positive feedback amplifies a physiological change rather than reversing it. These loops are used when rapid or decisive outcomes are needed. |
| Positive Feedback Loop :Analogy | Like a microphone screeching louder as sound loops between mic and speaker—until someone intervenes. |
| Positive Feedback Loop Example: Oxytocin and Childbirth As the baby presses on the cervix, signals trigger the release of oxytocin, causing stronger contractions. This loop continues until delivery. | Stimulus: Cervix stretches from baby's head Signal: Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary Response: Oxytocin released → stronger contractions Resolution: Baby is delivered → cycle ends Other Examples: Milk ejection reflex, blood clotting cascade |
| Negative Feedback Loop :Purpose | Maintains homeostasis |
| Negative Feedback Loop :Response to change | Reduces or reverses stimulus |
| Negative Feedback Loop: common examples | Blood glucose, thyroid, cortisol |
| Negative Feedback Loop : Loop Outcome | Stops when balance is restored |
| Positive Feedback Loop : Purpose | Drives processes to completion |
| Positive Feedback Loop : Response to change | Amplifies original stimulus |
| Positive Feedback Loop : Common Example | Labor, lactation, clotting |
| Positive Feedback Loop : Loop Outcome | Ends when a specific goal is met |
| Hormone Imbalance: Too Much or Too Little | An imbalance may involve excessive hormone production (hyperfunction) or insufficient hormone production (hypofunction) |
| Common Hormone Imbalances : Hyperthyroidism -> | an overactive thyroid condition where the gland produces excess hormone, accelerating the body's metabolism. Symptoms include Weight loss, sweating, heat intolerance, rapid heartbeat |
| Common Hormone Imbalances : Hypothyroidism -> | an underactive thyroid, occurs when your thyroid gland doesn't produce enough thyroid hormone to meet your body's needs. . System includes Fatigue, weight gain, cold intolerance, depression |
| Common Hormone Imbalances : Gigantism -> | GH excess during childhood causes extreme height |
| Common Hormone Imbalances : Dwarfism -> | GH deficiency during childhood causes stunted growth |
| Common Hormone Imbalances : Diabetes Mellitus -> | Impaired glucose regulation due to insulin dysfunction Chronic condition marked by persistent hyperglycemia due to insulin deficiency or resistance. |
| Common Hormone Imbalances : Acromegaly | A hormonal disorder caused by excess GH in adulthood, usually due to a pituitary tumor. It differs from gigantism, which occurs in children before growth plates close. |
| Common Hormone Imbalances : Addison's Disease | A rare endocrine disorder caused by adrenal gland insufficiency—leading to cortisol and aldosterone deficiency. |
| Common Hormone Imbalances : Cushing's Syndrome | Cushing’s syndrome results from excessive cortisol production or prolonged corticosteroid use. |
| Acromegaly - Causes , Signs and Symptoms, Treatment | C:Pituitary adenoma (most common) → excess GH in adulthood. Signs: enlarged skull, hands, feet; thickened skin, coarse facial features, fatigue, sweating, vision issues, cardio issues. TX: surgery to remove tumor, somatostatin analogs,GH receptor blockers |
| Addison's Disease - Causes , Signs and Symptoms, Treatment | Cause: Autoimmune adrenalitis (most common); also TB, cancer metastases, trauma. Signs: fatigue, weight loss, hyperpigmentation, nausea, vomiting, salt craving BP, low glucose.Tx: hydrocortisone, fludrocortisone |
| Cushing's Syndrome - Causes , Signs and Symptoms, Treatment | C:ACTH-secreting pituitary tumors, adrenal cortex tumors, chronic steroid use.Signs: moon face, buffalo hump, central obesity, thin skin, purple striae, acne,muscle weakness.tx: taper steroids if drug-induced, tumor removal, radiation, cortisol-low meds. |
| Hydrocortisone/Prednisone | Replaces cortisol |
| Fludrocortisone | Replaces aldosterone |
| Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus (DM) | Autoimmune destruction of beta cells (early onset) TX: Lifelong insulin therapy |
| Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DM) | Insulin resistance and eventual deficiency (adult onset) TX: Diet, exercise, oral meds, insulin if needed |
| Gestational Diabetes Mellitus (DM) | Temporary during pregnancy; raises future Type 2 DM risk TX:Diet, activity, blood glucose monitoring |
| The male’s reproductive role is to manufacture male gametes called ____and deliver them to the female reproductive tract, where fertilization can occur | sperm |
| the female is to produce female gametes, called ____ or eggs. | ova |
| intercourse, a sperm and an egg may fuse to form a fertilized egg, or _____ | zygote. |
| is the first cell of a new individual, from which all body cells will arise. | The zygote |
| Sex hormones - ___________ in males | androgens |
| Sex hormones - __________ and __________ in females | estrogens and progesterone |
| Sperm production in the testes takes place in coiled structures called | seminiferous tubules. |
| The ________ are where sperm are produced | testes |
| This is a cordlike structure where the sperm mature and are stored. | Along the top of each testicle is the epididymis |
| Where are sperm deposited after they leave the ejaculatory duct? | the prostatic urethra |
| What specialized structures help guide the oocyte from the ovary into the uterine tube? | fimbriae, |
| Luteinizing Hormone (LH) | helps the egg mature then triggers its release. |
| Ovulation starts when the pituitary gland releases the hormone ____ to start the development of an egg. | Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) |
| What would likely occur if the cilia were paralyzed at the time of ovulation? | the oocyte (egg) would likely fail to enter or move through the tube, potentially leading to infertility or an ectopic pregnancy. Paralyzed cilia cannot sweep the egg from the ovary toward the uterus, causing the egg to enter the pelvic cavity or get |
| Where are the testes located for most of gestational time? | in the abdominal cavity |
| What are male gametes called? | testes |
| Leydig cells ________. | Secrete testosterones |
| Which hypothalamic hormone contributes to the regulation of the male reproductive system? | gonadotropin-releasing hormone |
| What is the function of the epididymis? | sperm maturation and storage |
| Spermatogenesis takes place in the ________. | seminiferous tubules |
| What are the female gonads called? | Ovaries |
| When do the oogonia undergo mitosis? | Before birth |
| From what structure does the corpus luteum originate? | Dominant follicle |
| Where does fertilization of the egg by the sperm typically occur? | Uterine tube |
| Why do estrogen levels fall after menopause? | There are no follicles left to produce estrogen. |
| The vulva includes the ________. | mons pubis, labia majora, and Bartholin’s glands |
| What controls whether an embryo will develop testes or ovaries? | Y Chromosome |
| Without SRY expression, an embryo will develop ________. | female reproductive structures |
| The timing of puberty can be influenced by which of the following? genes stress amount of body fat all of the above | All of the above |
| Explain how the internal female and male reproductive structures develop from two different duct systems. | Wolffian (mesonephric)Müllerian (paramesonephric).males, testosterone maintains Wolffian ducts epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles; Müllerian ducts regress.females, Müllerian ducts form uterus, fallopian tubes, upper vagina; Wolffian ducts regress. |
| Explain the hormonal regulation of the phases of the menstrual cycle. | Menstrual:Low estrogen/progesterone;uterine lining sheds.Follicular: FSH stimulates follicle growth;estrogen rebuilds lining.Ovulation:Hi estrogen cuz LH surge,egg released.Luteal: Corpus luteum releases progesterone maintain lining; hormones drop no preg |
| Identify some differences between meiosis in men and women. | Male meiosis starts at puberty, is continuous, and produces four functional sperm daily. Female meiosis starts before birth, pauses until puberty, and produces one large, functional egg and three polar bodies monthly, ending at menopause |
| What do each of the three male accessory glands contribute to the semen? | seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands—produce the fluid components of semen that nourish, protect, and facilitate sperm transport. |
| Follow the path of ejaculated sperm from the vagina to the oocyte. Include all structures of the female reproductive tract that the sperm must swim through to reach the egg. | Vagina -> cervical canal (cervix) -> uterine cavity -> uterotubal junction -> fallopian tube, traveling through the isthmus to the ampulla, where fertilization usually occurs and the sperm finally reaches the oocyte. during ovulation in uterine tube lumen |
| Endocrine glands ________. | secrete chemical messengers that travel in the bloodstream |
| Chemical signaling that affects neighboring cells is called ________. | Paracrine |
| A newly developed pesticide has been observed to bind to an intracellular hormone receptor. If ingested, residue from this pesticide could disrupt levels of ________. | Thyroid hormone |
| A student is in a car accident, and although not hurt, immediately experiences pupil dilation, increased heart rate, and rapid breathing. What type of endocrine system stimulus did the student receive? | Neural |
| The hypothalamus is functionally and anatomically connected to the posterior pituitary lobe by a bridge of ________. | Nerve axons |
| What is an anterior pituitary hormone? | TSH |
| How many hormones are produced by the posterior pituitary? | 0 |
| What hormones contributes to the regulation of the body’s fluid and electrolyte balance? | antidiuretic hormone |
| Which of the following statements about the thyroid gland is true? It is located anterior to the trachea and inferior to the larynx. The parathyroid glands are embedded within it. It manufactures three hormones. all of the above | ALL OF THE ABOVE |
| The secretion of thyroid hormones is controlled by ________. | TSH from the anterior pituitary |
| Iodide ions cross from the bloodstream into follicle cells via ________. | Active transport |
| When blood calcium levels are low, PTH stimulates ________. | the activity of osteoclasts |
| Which of the following can result from hyperparathyroidism? increased bone deposition fractures convulsions all of the above | Fractures |
| The adrenal glands are attached superiorly to which organ? | Kidneys |
| Cushing’s disease is a disorder caused by ________. | abnormally high levels of cortisol |
| Which of the following responses s not part of the fight-or-flight response? pupil dilation increased oxygen supply to the lungs suppressed digestion reduced mental activity | Reduce mental activity |
| What cells secrete melatonin? | Pinealocytes |
| The production of melatonin is inhibited by ________. | Exposure to bring lights |
| The gonads produce what class of hormones? | Steroid hormones |
| The production of FSH by the anterior pituitary is reduced by which hormone? | Inhibin |
| The function of the placental hormone human placental lactogen (hPL) is to ________. prepare the breasts for lactation nourish the placenta regulate the menstrual cycle all of the above | Prepare the breasts for lactation |
| If an autoimmune disorder targets the alpha cells, production of which hormone would be directly affected? | Glucagon |
| True or false ? Insulin Insulin facilitates the movement of intracellular glucose transporters to the cell membrane. | True |
| The end result of the RAAS is to ________. | increase blood pressure |
| Athletes may take synthetic EPO to boost their ________. | Blood oxygen levels |
| Hormones produced by the thymus play a role in the ________. | Development of T cells |
| In the elderly, decreased thyroid function causes ________. | Osteoporosis |
| Describe several main differences in the communication methods used by the endocrine system and the nervous system. | Differ in speed, signal type,duration:nervous uses rapid electrical impulses and neurotransmitters for instant, short-lived, specific responses.endocrine uses hormones traveling through the bloodstream produce slower, long-lasting,widespread effects. |
| Compare and contrast endocrine and exocrine glands. | Endocrine are ductless, releasing hormones directly into the bloodstream for widespread, long-term systemic effects. Exocrine glands use ducts to release substances like sweat, saliva, or enzymes onto epithelial surfaces for localized, immediate action |
| True or false: Neurotransmitters are a special class of paracrines. Explain your answer. | True. Neurotransmitters are considered a specialized, highly localized class of paracrine signaling molecules. |
| Explain why maternal iodine deficiency might lead to neurological impairment in the fetus. | iodine is essential for producing thyroid hormones, which are critical for fetal brain development, including neuron formation, migration, and myelination. can cause irreversible damage to the brain |
| Define hyperthyroidism and explain why one of its symptoms is weight loss. | Hyperthyroidism is a disorder where the thyroid gland produces excessive thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)), causing the body's metabolism to speed up significantly. |
| Describe the role of negative feedback in the function of the parathyroid gland. | maintains calcium homeostasis by regulating parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion based on blood calcium levels. |
| Explain why someone with a parathyroid gland tumor might develop kidney stones. | hyperparathyroidism, the parathyroid glands ignore the “stop” command and continue to release PTH. Blood levels of calcium become too high.kidneys filter this excess calcium into the urine ), causing it to crystallize and form calcium-based kidney stones |
| What are the three regions of the adrenal cortex and what hormones do they produce? | (outer to inner) that produce steroid hormones: the zona glomerulosa (mineralocorticoids like aldosterone), zona fasciculata (glucocorticoids like cortisol), and zona reticularis (androgens like DHEA). |
| If innervation to the adrenal medulla were disrupted, what would be the physiological outcome? | impairing the "fight-or-flight" response. Physiological outcomes include a reduced ability to raise heart rate, blood pressure, and blood glucose during emergencies, resulting in decreased stamina. |
| Compare and contrast the short-term and long-term stress response. | Short- rapid,temp response immediate danger, causing temporary adrenaline spikes, increased heart rate,quick recovery. Long is prolonged, persistent activation of stress response, leading 2 high cortisol, physical wear&tear, burnout,serious health issues |
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