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2.2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| alleles | one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. |
| autosomes | any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. |
| Centromere | a specialized, constricted region of DNA on a eukaryotic chromosome that acts as the attachment point for spindle fibers during mitosis and meiosis |
| chromatid | each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA. |
| chromosome | thread-like structures located inside the nucleus of plant and animal cells, made of DNA tightly coiled around proteins called histones |
| deletion mutation | a genetic error where one or more nucleotide base pairs are removed from a DNA sequence during replication |
| DNA | the molecule that carries the genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth, and reproduction of all known living organisms |
| DNA Primer | a short, single-stranded sequence of nucleotides that serves as the essential starting point for DNA synthesis and polymerase chain reaction amplification |
| dominant allele | a genetic variant that expresses its associated phenotype (trait) even when only one copy is present |
| eukaryotic | organisms—including animals, plants, fungi, and protists—whose cells possess a membrane-bound nucleus containing their DNA and specialized, membrane-enclosed organelles |
| Familial Hypercholesterolemia | a common, inherited genetic disorder causing extremely high LDL ("bad") cholesterol levels from birth, significantly increasing risks of early heart disease and stroke |
| frameshift mutation | a genetic mutation caused by the insertion or deletion of nucleotide bases in a DNA sequence, in numbers not divisible by three |
| gene | a unit of heredity which is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring |
| genome | the complete set of genetic instructions (DNA) found in an organism, acting as a blueprint for its development, function, and growth |
| genotype | the genetic constitution of an individual organism. |
| gel electrophoresis | a fundamental laboratory technique that separates charged macromolecules—specifically DNA, RNA, or proteins—based on their size and electrical charge |
| heterozygous | having two different alleles of a particular gene or genes. |
| homologous chromosomes | pairs of matching chromosomes—one inherited from each parent—found in diploid cells that possess the same size, centromere position, and gene sequence (loci) |
| homozygous | having two identical alleles of a particular gene or genes. |
| insertion mutation | a type of genetic change where one or more extra nucleotides are added into a DNA sequence |
| karyotype | a laboratory-produced image or photograph displaying an individual's complete set of chromosomes, arranged in pairs by size, shape, and number |
| Messenger RNA (mRNA) | a single-stranded molecule that carries genetic instructions from DNA in the cell nucleus to the cytoplasm |
| mitosis | a fundamental process of cell division where one eukaryotic cell (the parent) divides its replicated DNA and cytoplasm to produce two genetically identical daughter cells |
| mutation | a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence of an organism, creating genetic variation |
| nondisjunction | the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division |
| nucleotides | the fundamental building block (monomer) of nucleic acids, DNA and RNA, essential for storing and transferring genetic information |
| pedigree | a recorded line of ancestors, family tree, or lineage, primarily used to document the purebred status of animals |
| phenotype | the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. |
| point mutation | a genetic alteration where a single nucleotide base (A, T, C, or G) in DNA or RNA is replaced, inserted, or deleted |
| polymerase chain reaction | a widely used, highly sensitive laboratory technique that rapidly amplifies, or produces millions to billions of copies of, a specific, minute segment of DNA |
| protein | any of a class of nitrogenous organic compounds that have large molecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acids and are an essential part of all living organisms. |
| protein synthesis | the fundamental biological process where cells build proteins by translating genetic information from DNA into sequences of amino acids |
| punnett square | a diagram used in biology to predict the potential genetic outcomes (genotypes) and traits (phenotypes) of offspring from a specific cross-breeding |
| recessive allele | a type of gene variant that only expresses its associated phenotype (trait) when an individual has two copies of it |
| restriction enzyme | proteins produced by bacteria that act as "molecular scissors," cutting double-stranded DNA at specific, short, palindromic sequences |
| ribonucleic acid (RNA) | a essential, single-stranded nucleic acid present in all living cells, acting as a molecular messenger that copies genetic information from DNA to create proteins |
| sex chromosomes | a specialized pair of chromosomes (typically X and Y in mammals) that determine an organism's biological sex |
| silent mutation | a type of DNA point mutation where a single nucleotide change in a gene's coding region does not alter the resulting amino acid sequence of the protein |
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