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OSAT 2 Exam
OSAT 2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is snow made up of? | -Ice crystals, freezing nucleus (clay particles) |
| Snow falling process includes ? | Pressure of water vapour in cloud allows crystal to grow hexagonally, until heavy enough to fall |
| What are the common types of snow crystals? | Plates, Needles, Dendrites, Columns |
| What is Riming? | The instant freezing of super-cooled water droplets coliding with a solid object |
| What does heavily rimed snow equal? | Graupel |
| Where can riming happen? | In the clouds and close to the earth's surface and can be deposited on the windward side of objects |
| What is surface hoar (hoarfrost) and how it is made? | The ice crystal equivalent of dew, water vapour desublimates to snow surface and crystals grow |
| What does surface hoar (hoarfrost) need? | Source of water vapour ex. humidity or open water and cold, calm air mass ex. clear, cold windless winter night |
| What is snowpack metamorphism? | Changes in temperature and mechanical pressure act to change the physical composition of snow over time |
| What is an example of mechanical pressure for snowpack metamorphism? | Wind and settling of snowfall layers |
| What are the 2 types of snowpack metamorphisms | Equilibrium Forms, and Kinetic Growth Forms |
| What is equilibrium forms metamorphism? | Requires low temperature gradient (less than 1 degree per 10cm) -creates stronger bonds between snow crystals (sintering) making it stronger -water vapour moves from convex to concave surfaces,. -creates rounded crystals |
| What is kinetic growth forms metamorphism? | -requires steep temp gradient ( more than 1 degree per 10cm), -water vapour moves upward -creating crystal growth at bottom of snow pack(depth hoar or pukak layer) -Snowpack becomes less stable as bonds are not strong -crystals have flat faces |
| What does equilibrium forms create? | Creates what is known as rounding |
| What does kinetic growth forms create? | Creates what is known as faceting |
| Can conditions alternate between equilibrium and kinetic growth forms? | Yes, Conditions can alternate between equilibrium forms and kinetic growth forms, with both types of metamorphosed crystals present in the snowpack at the same time |
| What is sintering? | The bonding process where ice grains connect to each other and strengthen the snowpack, forming on cohesive mass. |
| Why do snow crystals lose their points? | Molecular motion, wind, and direct pressure |
| The sintering process includes? | 2 round snow crystals touch, creating a hollow concavity, water vapour moves from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure, molecules sublime and create necks between ice grains |
| What are different types of snow shelters? | Igloo, Quinzhee, snow cave, snow trench (dugloo) |
| What are a few important principles when dressing for winter? | Avoid moisture build up by using VBL and managing sweat, having space between layer (loft), allow for optimum blood circulation, use outer shell, cover bare skin, get off the ground (reduce conduction) |
| What is sublimation? | Solid to a gas |
| What is deposition? | Gas to solid |
| What is evaporation? | Liquid to gas |
| What is condensation? | Gas to liquid |
| Ecological definition of winter | Time of challenge for plants and animals, time of slower biologic activity |
| Astrological definition of winter | Dec 21- Mar 21, insolation (solar energy) decreases |
| Water freezes at what temp and is the densest at what temp? | Freezes at 0 degrees C and is densest at 4 degrees C |
| Plant stressors in winter? | Freezing temps, little or no food production, desiccation (drying) |
| How do plants compensate in the winter? | Water in areas between cells freeze, sugar levels in cells increase acting as antifreeze, store nutrients underground, cease growth, and abscission layer |
| What is abscission? | The adaptation when plants shed their leaves, flowers, fruit during season changes allowing the plant to conserve energy and water loss, also helps with snow weight on branches |
| SWhat are a few coniferous tress ? | Spruce, balsam fir, jack pine, tamarack |
| What are coniferous tree winter adaptations? | Smaller surface areas for leaves (reduce water loss), cutin (waxy coating) on leaves to prevent water evaporation, photosynthesis occurs longer, cone shape and flexibility for snow |
| What are some deciduous tress that go into dormancy (lose leaves and shut down for winter)? | Birch, Poplar, Aspen, Alder |
| What are some winter stressors for animals? | Snow, cold, energy, wind |
| What are some effects on animals from the snowpack? | No snow=exposure (small mammals) Deep snow=exhaustion (large mammals) Early and late snows create stress for finding food and fat storage |
| What are the 4 animal survival strategies? | migration, inactivity/hibernation, activity/modifications, and adaptations |
| What does torpor mean? | state of inactivity achieved primarily by a greatly lowered body temp |
| what does hibernation mean? | an evolved suite of adaptations to the winter season- active suppression of metabolism (hours, days, months) |
| What does brumation mean? | metabolic slowing in reptiles |
| What does diapause mean? | arrested state of devlopment |
| What are some examples of winter adaptations for a snowshoe hare? | Ratio of feet size to weight for floatation, fur colour for camouflage (brown to white), slowed metabolism, underground highways, nocturnal and precocial (independent) |
| What are some examples of winter adaptations for a ruffed grouse? | Change in diet to poplar buds, twigs and catkins, eat fast in winter, pectinations (feet) act as snowshoes, extra feathers and winter roosting |
| What are some examples of hibernation in bears? | Chemical signals in blood to hibernate, appetite suppression caused by leptin, body temp 35 degrees C, no urination= no need for water intake |
| What are some examples of migration in bats? | Cold storage environment (caves) to avoid freezing and conserve fats , every 10 degree increase doubles metabolic rate |
| What are some examples of migration in butterflies? | Monarchs migrate to Mexico where 14 million congregate, no feeding for 90 days |
| What is subnivean living? | The humid, insulated microhabitat between the snowpack and the ground where temps remain near 0 degrees C, where small animals live, hunt, and avoid freezing. |
| What are the only animals that stay active all winter in the northern hemisphere? | Bees, they cluster and stay warm |
| Why do we do reflection in groups? | Encourages continuation of learning, enhances intersubjectivity, ensures intended outcomes or messages are achieved |
| What is Kolb's model in debriefing? | Kolb's cycle of experiential learning |
| What is intersubjectivity? | The shared understanding and meaning of experience |
| What are the 3 models of reflection that can be used in debriefing? | Borton's what, so what, now what model Gibb's reflective cycle Priest and Gass's Six generations of facilitation |
| What does Borton's model include? | what- sharing the experience, so what discussing patterns and developing reasoning, now what-how will we apply this in future experiences |
| What does Gibbs reflective cycle include? | Description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion, action plan |
| What does Priest and Gass model include? | -Let experience speak for itself, -peaking or experience -debriefing experience -directly frontload experience -framing experience -indirectly frontloaf experience |
| What is wind chill? | The meteorological index which combines the effects of wind speed and temp- term used to describe additional cooling produced by wind |
| Who developed the wind chill factor, when, and how? | Pail Siple in 1945 on Admiral Byrds Antarctic Expedition Measured time required to freeze vials of water in different wind and temperature conditions |
| What is the rule of 30? | 30 mph wind at temps of -30 degrees F will freeze exposed skin in less than 30 seconds |
| What is windchill factor? | Index measurement of actual rate of heat loss due to the effect of wind in watts/m^2 (same measurment as lightbulb) |
| What is equivalent temperature? | temperature index which describes how the real air temperature feels due to the cooling effect of wind |
| Why does wind make you feel colder? | By evaporating moisture on your skin |
| How can you predict winds? | Wind=air mass moving from ridge of high pressure to a trough of low pressure, difference in pressure creates pressure slope. wind strength comes from large pressure difference and pressure slope |
| What units of measurement do we use for wind chil? | "feels like" |
| What is frostbite? | Localized cold injury characterized by freezing of soft tissue and ice crystal formation within the tissue |
| What are some factors that may lead to frost bite? | Ambient temps below 0, extremities exposed to the elements (ex. cold metal), obstruction of blood supply, hypothermia |
| What is the 1st mechanism of tissue injury? | Ice crystal formation from freezing of tissue gradual and rapid |
| What are the differences between gradual and rapid tissue freezing? | Gradual freezing- ice crystals from between cells by extracting water, dehydration causes injury, damage is reversible Rapid freezing- ice crystals forming inside cells, more destructive |
| What is the 2nd mechanism of tissue injury? | Obstruction of blood supply- cell lining and veins are damaged, let liquid leak into tissue, decrease volume of blood and leaves blood cells suspended in sludge. Results in decreased circulation to tissue and some irreversible damage |
| What are the 3 types of frostbite? | 1st, 2nd, and 3rd degree 1st- superficial 2nd-superficial 3rd-deep |
| What are frostbite symptoms? | 1st- pale/white/waxy skin, cold, numb, pliable dents 2nd- same as 1st but firm 3rd, same as 1st but hard |
| What are symptoms of 1st degree frostbite after re-warming? | Pink/red skin, swollen, warm, no blisters |
| What are symptoms of 2nd degree frostbite after re-warming? | Red/blue skin, swollen, warm, but with blisters |
| What are symptoms of 3rd degree frostbite after re-warming? | Purple/black skin, swollen, warm, blisters, blebs, mummification |
| What are some frostbite preventative measures? | Protective clothing, covering exposed skin, no obstruction to circulation, regular monitoring, avoid smoking (vasoconstrictor) |
| What are treatment protocols for superficial (1st and 2nd degree) frostbite? | Immediate field rewarming, reverse shell/core effect, no rubbing or friction, careful using dry heat, leave blisters intact, avoid refreezing at all costs |
| What are treatment protocols for deep (3rd degree) frostbite? | Controlled rewarming in hospital as it causes extreme pain, pain control required, immerse in 37-40.5 degree C water |
| What are treatment protocols for deep (3rd degree) frostbite in the wilderness? | Protect, stabilize, transport, and never allow refreezing affected tissue |
| What are some other localized cold injuries? | Trench foot, chillblains, Raynaud's syndrome |
| What are some signs and symptoms of trench foot? | Red irritated skin, pain, itching and prickling sensation, swelling, blisters, rash |
| What are treatment protocols for trench foot? | Dry and warm feet often, increase circulation and perfusion, clean and treat often to prevent infection |
| What is chillblains? | Red, warm , tender, swollen, itchy skin from repeated bare skin exposure to wet, cold and windy conditions |
| What are treatment options for chillblains? | Dry, warm up, and over exposed skin, and moisturize |
| What is Raynaud's syndrome? | Abnormal vascular response to cold, white blue discolouration clearly identifying affected area, higher frostbite risk |
| What are treatment options for Raynaud's syndrome? | keep warm and stay hydrated, pre conditioning and medications |
| What are the four mechanisms of heat loss? | Convection, conduction, radiation, and evaporation |
| What are the 3 levels of cold? | Cold response, mild hypothermia, and severe hypothermia |
| What are symptoms of cold response? | Awake and alert The person "feels cold" Possible shivering Increased urination Can easily lead to hypothermia |
| What are treatment protocols for cold response? | Insulate – create an environment where the person’s own heat can be trapped next to their body Food Fluids Exercise and more complex foods are ok if the patient is completely alert and ‘with it’ |
| What are symptoms of mild hypothermia? | Awake but altered level of mental alertness (i.e. confused, disoriented, lethargic, change of personality, uncoordinated) Uncontrolled shivering The “Umbles” |
| What are treatment protocols for mild hypothermia? | Insulate – create an environment where the person’s own heat can be trapped next to their body CALORIES! — simple sugars are best (e.g. honey) Fluids (any) No exercise until mental alertness improves to normal |
| What are symptoms of severe hypothermia? | Not awake Eventually will stop shivering Pulse rate and breathing slow and may be undetectable |
| What are treatment protocols for severe hypothermia? | Emergency evacuation Treat gently and keep in horizontal position Package in ‘hypo wrap’ Can give ventilations at slower than usual rate of 6 breaths per minute (1 every 10 seconds) Place heat source on the patient’s chest if possible |
| What is afterdrop? | when your core temperature continues to drop after rewarming has begun |
| What is the process happening during afterdrop? | blood vessels from the skin constrict (Shell to Core effect) Once rewarming begins blood vessels begin to dilate Cold blood from extremities circulate and returns to core causing temp to continue dropping Can cause complications (heart arrhythmia) |
| What are preventative measures for afterdrop? | Focus on core rewarming first, and avoid exercise at first because it can increase afterdrop effect |
| What is the 1:10:1 rule? | cold water physiological cold response at 1 minute, 10 minutes, and 1 hour. Applies to submersion in water near 0C without waterproof layers by By Dr. Gordon Giesbrecht |
| What do the 1, 10, and 1 in the rule represent? | 1 minute-cold shock 10 minutes- cold incapacitation 1 hour- hypothermia |
| Whats happening during 1 minute (cold shock)? | Control breathing, keep head above water, avoid hyperventilating |
| Whats happening during 10 minute (cold incapacitation)? | 10 mins of meaningful movement, make a plan, use strength efficiently, pull yourself on to the ice as far as possible |
| Whats happening once you've hit 1 hour (hypothermia)? | Unconscious, time depends on air temp, body mass, and clothing, Try to freeze yourself to the ice so you don't fall in water and drown |
| What is the most common sickness during winter camping? | Diarrhea |
| What are two common ways to stay sanitary winter camping? | Hand washing and snow baths |
| What are some good tips for staying sanitary while cooking on winter camp? | Use different gloves for cooking than other activities, wash hands, wash dishes, and designate area specifically for water snow |
| What are some protocols for peeing on winter camp? | pick a spot away from camp and main trails to pee, cover up your pee with snow, concentrate pee area |
| What are some protocols for pooping on winter camp? | Pick spot on land away from water (100m from water), pack down spot and dig a hole, cover up when youre done, use snow as toilet paper or pack it out/burn it |
| What are some reasons to travel on ice? | easier navigation, more efficient most of the time, change of pace and scenery, rivers often lead to communities, cant fish on land |
| What happens during lake "turnover"? | Water becomes dense as it cools, only cools to 4 degrees C, surface layer hits 4 degrees C and sinks to bottom. This process continues until whole lake is 4 degrees C, then the surface water cools to 0 degrees C and freezes |
| What are 3 different types of ice? | Clear ice (black ice, blue ice), white ice, and chandelier ice (rotten ice) |
| What is clear ice (black, blue ice)? | Pure ice, formed by freezing contiguous water |
| What is white ice? | Snow and air mixed with water during freezing, 20%-50% weaker than clear ice |
| Which ice is strongest? | Clear ice |
| How many inches of effective ice would 6 inches of white ice equal to? | 3 inches because its half as strong as clear ice |
| When calculating ice effectiveness what should you consider? | Thickness of clear ice + 1/2 thickness of white ice = the effective ice thickness |
| What are a few minimum ice thickness requirements for loads in Ontario? | Person- 10cm, snowmobile 18cm, 4x4 vehicles 38 cm |
| What are some factors that affect ice thickness in a lake? | Size, depth, chemical composition, biological activity, decomposing material |
| What are some tells that the ice cracking is very unsafe? | radial cracks, circumferential cracks, radial and circumferential cracks meetings |
| What happens during river ice formation? | Forms from shore toward middle of river, shore is usually most stable, ice formation varies depending on current because water movement=friction=heat, river ice is more dynamic and changes more quickly than lake ice |
| If youre walking around a curve on a frozen river, where is going to be strongest? | On the inner curve of the river, furthest away from an open lead |
| What are a few tips for food packing on winter camp? | Pack lots of high fat foods as these calories burn the longest, cut and prep everything you can before hand, stews and soups are great, body pack snacks so they thaw out, easy = better, don't bring metal utensils |
| Can risk be negative and positive? | yes, we often forget about the positives |
| What are some positives of risks? | Experiential learning, building confidence, and having fun. Sometimes the activity is so awesome its worth it |
| What are the 3 categories of hazards? | activity risks, human risks, and environment risks (The lemon theory) |
| What are the 4 ways to manage an identified risk? | eliminate, retain, transfer, and reduce |
| What are examples of eliminating a risk on winter camp? | Not bringing sick people in the field, cut off temperature, choice of river travel or camp, not using hatchets |
| What are examples of retaining risk on winter camp? | Sliding down the hill on pulk, choosing to go despite cold temps, tree felling for wood, cooking over the fire |
| What are examples of transferring risk on winter camp? | Hiring a bus company, waivers and health forms |
| What are examples of reducing risk on winter camp? | chopping on our knees, check ins with instructors, fire gloves, extra equipment, first aid requirements |
| What is the difference between institutional and personal risk? | Institutional is an organization or company who typically have policies and procedures, and personal risk is if you decided to go try an activity on your own |
| What are some examples of policies and procedures ORPT uses? | Instructor/student ratios, evac plans, drug and alcohol policies, required certifications, emergency contacts, course outlines and risk management plans |
| What are some examples of personal risk management strategies for a river travel day? | Informing your group on the risks, be aware of groups ability, meet the group where they're at, visit the site before hand if possible, make list of equipment needed, check ins |
Created by:
maddiebassie