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unit 4 vocab
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| attributions | the cognitive processes people use to explain the causes of behavior and events, attributing them either to internal dispositions (personality) or external situations |
| dispositional attributions | (or internal attribution) is the tendency to explain behavior by attributing it to a person's stable, internal traits, personality, motives, or abilities, rather than situational influences. It assumes actions stem from who the person is |
| situational attributions | the process of explaining a person's behavior by focusing on external factors—such as the environment, social pressures, or luck—rather than their internal personality traits. It attributes actions to "what is happening around them" |
| attribution theory | the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation (a situational attribution) or the person’s stable, enduring traits (a dispositional attribution). |
| explanatory style | a cognitive personality variable referring to how people habitually explain the causes of events in their lives, particularly negative ones. It reflects an individual's habitual, consistent way of thinking |
| actor/observer bias | the tendency for those acting in a situation to attribute their behavior to external causes, but for observers to attribute others’ behavior to internal causes. This contributes to the fundamental attribution error |
| fundamental attribution error | the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition. |
| self-serving bias | a readiness to perceive ourselves favorably. |
| mere exposure effect | the tendency for repeated exposure to novel stimuli to increase our liking of them. |
| self-fulfilling prophecy | a belief that leads to its own fulfillment. |
| social comparison | the psychological process, often automatic, of evaluating one’s own abilities, opinions, and social status by comparing them to others |
| relative deprivation | the perception that we are worse off relative to those with whom we compare ourselves. |
| stereotype | a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people. |
| prejudiced attituded | an unjustified, typically negative, and rigid attitude toward a group and its members |
| discriminatory behaviors | unjust, negative, or harmful actions taken toward members of a specific group based on prejudice or stereotypes |
| implicit attitudes | involuntary, unconscious evaluations or feelings toward people, objects, or concepts that operate outside of conscious awareness |
| just-world- phenomenon | the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get. |
| out-group-homogeneity bias | the cognitive tendency to perceive members of an out-group (a group you do not belong to) as more similar, uniform, or "all alike" than they actually are |
| in-group bias | the tendency to favor one's own group, its members, and its characteristics over those from outside groups |
| ethnocentrism | the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own ethnic group, culture, or society, often accompanied by a tendency to view other groups as inferior, abnormal, or wrong |
| belief perseverance | the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. |
| confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. |
| cognitive dissonance | the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes. |
| social norms | the understood, often unwritten rules and expectations that guide acceptable behavior, attitudes, and actions within a specific group or culture |
| social influence theory | describes how an individual's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are shaped by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others |
| persuasion | changing people’s attitudes, potentially influencing their actions. |
| elaboration likelihood model | a theory of persuasion proposing that attitude change occurs via two main routes—central or peripheral—depending on a person’s motivation and ability to process information |
| halo effect | a type of cognitive bias (or heuristic) in which an observer's overall positive impression of a person, brand, or product influences their feelings, thoughts, and evaluations about that entity's specific, unrelated traits |
| foot-in-the-door | the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request. |
| door-in-the-face | a persuasion and compliance strategy where a large, unreasonable request (expected to be rejected) is followed by a smaller, more reasonable request |
| conformity | adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard. |
| obedience | complying with an order or a command. |
| individualism | a cultural pattern that emphasizes people’s own goals over group goals and defines identity mainly in terms of unique personal attributes. |
| collectivism | a cultural pattern that prioritizes the goals of important groups (often one’s extended family or work group). |
| multiculturalism | the recognition, appreciation, and promotion of multiple cultural, ethnic, and social groups within a society, emphasizing equal status, respect, and rights for all, while acknowledging how cultural differences shape behavior, cognition, and social intera |
| group polarization | the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group. |
| groupthink | the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives. |
| diffusion of responsibility | a sociopsychological phenomenon where an individual is less likely to take action or feel personally accountable to help in an emergency or, in a group setting, to complete a task, because they assume others present will (or have already) acted. |
| social loafing | the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable. |
| deindividuation | the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity. |
| social facilitation | in the presence of others, improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks, and worsened performance on difficult tasks. |
| false consensus effect | a cognitive bias where individuals overestimate the extent to which their own opinions, beliefs, preferences, values, and habits are normal and typical of others |
| superordinate goals | shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation. |
| social trap | a situation in which two parties, by each pursuing their self-interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior. |
| industrial-organizational psychologists | the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. |
| altruism | unselfish regard for the welfare of others. |
| social reciprocity norm | an expectation in social psychology that people will help, not harm, those who have helped them. It is a learned social rule driving people to return favors and kindness, fostering mutual cooperation |
| bystander effect | the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present. |
| psychodynamic theory | therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition; views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight. |
| denial | an unconscious, psychoanalytic defense mechanism where an individual refuses to accept or acknowledge the reality of a threatening, painful, or anxiety-inducing situation |
| displacement | a psychoanalytic defense mechanism where an individual redirects negative emotions, impulses, or aggression from the original, threatening source onto a less threatening, substitute person or object |
| projection | an unconscious psychoanalytic defense mechanism where individuals attribute their own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, motives, or impulses onto another person |
| rationalization | a psychoanalytic defense mechanism where individuals justify unacceptable behavior, thoughts, or feelings by creating logical, plausible, but false excuses |
| reaction formation | defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously replaces an anxiety-provoking or unacceptable impulse, desire, or feeling with its exact opposite in both thought and behavior. It is an ego-defense strategy used to manage internal conflict by overcompe |
| regression | a psychoanalytic defense mechanism, originally proposed by Sigmund Freud, where an individual reverts to an earlier, more immature stage of development when faced with stress, anxiety, or unconscious conflict |
| repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. |
| sublimation | the unconscious, mature process of transforming socially unacceptable impulses, desires, or anxieties—particularly sexual or aggressive drives—into constructive, socially acceptable behaviors |
| preconscious mind | contains information, memories, and thoughts that are not currently in conscious awareness but can be easily accessed, retrieved, or brought into consciousness with minimal effort |
| unconscious mind | a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories that are outside of conscious awareness |
| unconditional regard | an attitude of complete acceptance, care, and non-judgmental love toward an individual, regardless of their behavior, feelings, or choices |
| self-actualizing tendency | according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one’s potential. |
| primary motivating factors | innate, biological needs that compel action to ensure survival, such as hunger, thirst, sleep, and sex. These drives arise from internal physiological deficits (needs) and motivate behavior to return the body to a state of homeostasis |
| social-cognitive theory | views behavior as a dynamic interaction between individuals' traits (including thoughts), their social context, and their environment |
| reciprocal determinism | the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment. |
| self-concept | all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves in answer to the question, “Who am I?” |
| self-efficacy | our sense of competence and effectiveness. |
| self-esteem | our feelings of high or low self-worth. |
| traits | stable, enduring, and consistent patterns of behavior, emotions, and thoughts that distinguish individuals from one another |
| big five theory | five traits — openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism — that describe personality. (Also called the five-factor model.) |
| drive-reduction theory | the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. |
| arousal theory | individuals are motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal (alertness and stimulation) to avoid boredom or overstimulation |
| Yerkes Dodson law | the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases. |
| self-determination | the theory that we feel motivated to satisfy our needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. |
| intrinsic motivation | the desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake |
| Lewin's motivational conflicts theory | human behavior is driven by the internal tension created when choosing between opposing, desirable, or undesirable goals. |
| sensation-seeking theory | a personality trait defined by a, typically high, desire for novel, complex, and intense sensations and experiences, often accompanied by a willingness to take physical, social, legal, or financial risks to obtain them |
| experience seeking | one of the four sub-factors of Zuckerman's sensation-seeking personality trait, characterized by the pursuit of novel, varied, and complex sensations through the mind and senses |
| thrill or adventure seeking | the desire to engage in physically risky, high-adrenaline, and exciting activities |
| disinhibition | a lack of restraint, or a, reduction in the ability to suppress impulses, leading to socially inappropriate, risky, or impulsive behaviors |
| boredom susceptibility | a component of sensation-seeking personality traits, referring to an individual's low tolerance for repetitive, boring, or monotonous experiences |
| ghrelin | hormone produced in the stomach that acts as an "appetite stimulant" or "hunger hormone" signaling the hypothalamus to increase food intake and stimulate hunger. |
| leptin | a protein hormone produced by fat cells (adipose tissue) that acts as a long-term "satiety" signal, reducing hunger and increasing energy expenditure to maintain body weight |
| emotion/affect | is defined as a complex, four-part psychological state consisting of physiological arousal , cognitive appraisal, subjective feelings , and expressive behaviors . is the underlying experience of feeling, often described as a, positive or negative, "raw" f |
| broaden-build-theory | proposes that positive emotions broaden our awareness, which over time helps us build novel and meaningful skills and resilience that improve well-being. |
| display rules | informal, culturally-specific norms that regulate how, when, and where individuals should express emotions |
| elicitors | environmental stimuli, events, or cues that trigger or evoke specific emotional responses |
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