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2.2 vocab
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| point mutation | A genetic mutation in which a single nucleotide (one “letter” of DNA) is changed, added, or deleted in a DNA sequence. |
| polymerase chain reaction | A laboratory technique used to make many copies of a specific DNA segment. It allows scientists to amplify small amounts of DNA for testing and research. |
| protein | A large, complex molecule made of amino acids that performs many important functions in the body, such as building tissues, speeding up chemical reactions (enzymes), and supporting the immune system. |
| protein synthesis | The process by which cells make proteins. It involves two main steps: Transcription (DNA → RNA) Translation (RNA → Protein) |
| punnett square | A diagram used in genetics to predict the possible genetic outcomes (genotypes and phenotypes) of offspring from a cross between two parents. |
| recessive allele | A version of a gene that only shows its effect when a person has two copies of it (one from each parent). It is masked if a dominant allele is present. |
| restriction enzyme | A protein that cuts DNA at specific sequences. Scientists use restriction enzymes in genetic engineering and DNA analysis. |
| ribonucleic acid (RNA) | A molecule similar to DNA that helps carry out protein synthesis. RNA carries genetic instructions from DNA to ribosomes where proteins are made. |
| sex chromosomes | Chromosomes that determine an organism’s biological sex. In humans, females typically have XX chromosomes and males have XY chromosomes. |
| silent mutation | A type of mutation where a change in the DNA sequence does not change the amino acid produced, so the protein remains the same. |
| homologous chromosomes | A pair of chromosomes (one from each parent) that are the same size and shape and carry the same types of genes, though the alleles may differ. |
| homozygous | Having two identical alleles for a specific gene (for example, AA or aa). |
| insertion mutation | A type of mutation where one or more nucleotides are added into a DNA sequence. |
| karyotype | A picture or display of all the chromosomes in a cell arranged in pairs by size and shape, used to check for chromosomal abnormalities. |
| Messenger RNA (mRNA) | A type of RNA that carries genetic instructions from DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes, where proteins are made. |
| mitosis | The process of cell division that produces two identical daughter cells for growth and repair. |
| mutation | A permanent change in the DNA sequence of a gene or chromosome. |
| nondisjunction | An error during cell division in which chromosomes fail to separate properly, resulting in cells with too many or too few chromosomes. |
| nucleotides | The building blocks of DNA and RNA, made of a sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen base (A, T, C, G in DNA; A, U, C, G in RNA). |
| pedigree | A diagram that shows how a genetic trait is passed through generations in a family. |
| phenotype | The observable traits or characteristics of an organism, such as eye color or height, influenced by genotype and environment. |
| alleles | Different versions of the same gene. For example, a gene for eye color may have a brown allele and a blue allele. |
| autosomes | Chromosomes that are not sex chromosomes. Humans have 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes. |
| Centromere | The tightly packed region of a chromosome that holds sister chromatids together and is where spindle fibers attach during cell division. |
| chromatid | One of two identical copies of a replicated chromosome. When joined together, they are called sister chromatids. |
| chromosome | A long, organized structure made of DNA and proteins that contains many genes. Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). |
| deletion mutation | A type of mutation where one or more nucleotides are removed from a DNA sequence. |
| DNA | The molecule that carries genetic information in living organisms. It has a double-helix structure and is made of nucleotides (A, T, C, G). |
| DNA Primer | A short strand of RNA or DNA that provides a starting point for DNA replication. |
| dominant allele | An allele that shows its effect even if only one copy is present. It masks the effect of a recessive allele. |
| eukaryotic | Refers to cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Plants, animals, fungi, and protists are eukaryotic. |
| Familial Hypercholesterolemia | A genetic disorder that causes very high levels of LDL (“bad”) cholesterol in the blood, increasing the risk of heart disease. |
| frameshift mutation | A mutation caused by insertion or deletion of nucleotides that shifts the reading frame of a gene, often leading to a completely different and nonfunctional protein. |
| gene | A segment of DNA that contains instructions for making a specific protein or functional RNA. |
| genome | The complete set of genetic material in an organism. |
| genotype | The genetic makeup of an organism — the combination of alleles it carries. |
| gel electrophoresis | A laboratory technique used to separate DNA, RNA, or proteins by size using an electric current through a gel. |
| heterozygous | Having two different alleles for a specific gene (for example, Aa). |
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