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Psychology Chapter 2
2A, 2B, 2C, 2D
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Central Nervous system | a major division of the nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord, which receives neural messages from and transmits neural messages to the peripheral nervous system |
| Brain | a complex organ contained within the skull that coordinates mental processes and behaviour, and regulates bodily activity |
| Spinal cord | a cable of nerve tissue that extends from the brain, connecting it to the peripheral nervous system |
| brain in terms of CNS | considered to be the ‘control centre’ of the body because it controls physiological and psychological processes |
| spinal cord in terms of CNS | is composed of afferent tracts ( transmit sensory messages to brain) and efferent tracts ( transmit motor messages from teh brain In this way, the spinal cord is the route via which neural information travels between the brain and the body. |
| Peripheral nervous system | a major division of the nervous system comprising every neuron in the body outside the central nervous system |
| Somatic nervous system | a division of the peripheral nervous system that transmits neural messages related to voluntary motor movement |
| Skeletal muscles | muscles connected to the skeleton that carry out voluntary motor movements |
| The somatic nervous system comprises: | sensory neural pathways, which are made up of sensory neurons. • motor neural pathways, which are made up of motor neurons. |
| sensory neural pathways | messages travel from sensory receptors, which are nerve endings that detect sensations, to the central nervous system via afferent neural pathways in the somatic nervous system. |
| motor neural pathways | messages travel from the central nervous system to skeletal muscles, which are muscles connected to the skeleton that carry out voluntary motor movements, via efferent neural pathways in the somatic nervous system. |
| autonomic nervous system | a division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates visceral muscles, organs, and glands, and transmits neural messgaes to the cns about their activity (responsible for unconscious response) |
| visceral muscles, organs and glands | muscles, organs and glands not connected to the skeleton that are predominantly self regulating and do not require conscious control eg heart, sweat glands, stomach, liver, colon, bladder, intestine, kidney, adrenal, lungs, slaliary glands |
| Sympathetic nervous system | a division of the autonomic nervous system that activates visceral muscles, organs, and glands, preparing the body to respond to a threat or stressor. energise the body,to engage in high activity to confront a threatening or stressful situation |
| Parasympathetic nervous system | a division of the autonomic nervous system that maintains the optimal and balanced functioning of visceral muscles, organs, and glands. returning them to balanced functioning after arousal of sympathetic repsonses, as well as maintaining homeostasis. |
| Neuron | a nerve cell that receives and transmits neural information |
| Motor neurons (also known as efferent neurons) | neurons that transmit neural messages about motor movement from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system |
| Sensory neurons (also known as afferent neurons) | neurons that transmit neural messages about bodily sensations from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system |
| Interneurons | neurons that transfer neural messages between sensory neurons and motor neurons |
| Conscious response | a deliberate and voluntary action that is initiated by the brain and performed intentionally by the body |
| Sensory receptor | a nerve ending that detects internal sensations in the body and external sensations from the environment |
| Conscious responses to internal and external sensory stimuli Step 1 | The sensory stimulus comes into contact with sensory receptors, which are nerve endings that detect internal sensations in the body and external sensations from the environment. eg Cold water contacts sensory receptors detect the cold sensation. |
| step 2 | This sensory neural message is transmitted via afferent pathways in the somatic nervous system, and then the spinal cord, to the brain. eg The cold sensation is transmitted to the brain via sensory neural pathways represented by the green line. |
| step 3 | The brain processes this sensory information, coordinating and initiating a conscious motor response. eg The brain receives and processes the cold sensation, initiating a motor response to turn on the tap to increase the temperature of the water |
| step 4 | This motor neural message is transmitted via efferent pathways in the spinal cord, and then the somatic nervous system, to skeletal muscles. eg This motor response is transmitted to skeletal muscles via motor neural pathways |
| step 5 | The skeletal muscles carry out the conscious motor response to the sensory stimulus. eg Skeletal muscles move the person’s hand towards the ‘hot’ tap to increase the temperature of the water. |
| Unconscious response | an automatic and involuntary action that is performed without conscious awareness in response to internal and external sensory stimuli |
| two types of unconscious response | physiological responses of the autonomic nervous system • the spinal reflex. |
| Physiological responses of the autonomic nervous system | the autonomic nervous system is involved in the unconscious physiological responses of these visceral muscles, organs, and glands |
| Sympathetic unconsious responses | Heart rate increases Breathing rate increases Pupils dilate to allow more light to enter the eyes Adrenal glands secrete stress hormones, Sweat glands are activated Digestion is inhibited to conserve energy The body releases more glucose |
| Parasympathetic responses unconscious responses | The heart beats at a steady and regular rate Lung airways constrict Pupils constrict Adrenal glands do not secrete stress hormones Sweat glands are regulated Digestion is normally The bladder constricts |
| Spinal reflex | an unconscious response to sensory stimuli that is initiated by interneurons in the spinal cord independently of the brain |
| Spinal reflex step 1 | A dangerous sensory stimulus is detected by sensory receptors, which transmit this sensory message via sensory neurons in the somatic nervous system to the spinal cord eg person touches a hot pan. sensation is detected by their sensory receptor |
| step 2 | An interneuron in the spinal cord immediately relays this sensory neural signal from a sensory neuron to a motor neuron as a motor neural signal, initiating an automatic and unconscious motor response. |
| step 3 | The motor message is transmitted via motor neurons in the somatic nervous system to skeletal muscles, which carry out this unconscious motor response to the dangerous or harmful sensory stimulus. |
| step 4 | The sensory message continues to travel via afferent tracts in the spinal cord to the brain. Then, the brain independently registers the sensation that triggered the spinal reflex. |
| Reflex arc | the path along which the neural signal is transmitted as part of the spinal reflex |
| Neural synapse | the region that includes the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron, the synaptic gap, and the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron |
| presynaptic neuron | the neuron that releases neurochemicals into the neural synapse |
| Axon terminal (also known as terminal button) | the end of a neuron that releases neurochemicals into the neural synapse |
| Synaptic gap | the space between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron |
| Postsynaptic neuron | the neuron that receives neurochemicals from the neural synapse |
| Dendrite | a branched extension of a neuron on which receptor sites are located |
| Receptor site | a protein molecule on the dendrites of a neuron that receives neurochemicals |
| Neurochemical | a chemical substance that transmits neural information within the nervous system, released by the presynaptic neuron and affect teh post synaptic neuron |
| Synaptic transmission | the chemical conveyance of neural information between two neurons across a neural synapse, neurochemicals enable this |
| process of synaptic transmission | Neurochemicals are produced in the axon terminals of the pre released from the axon terminals of the pre into the synaptic gap bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the post affect the post either triggering or inhibiting a response. |
| lock and key analogy | Each neurochemical has a distinct molecular structure that corresponds to a specific receptor site. A neurochemical can only bind to the corresponding receptor site that matches its specific molecular structure. |
| types of neurochemicals | neurotransmitters • neuromodulators. |
| Neurotransmitter | a chemical molecule that has an effect on one or two postsynaptic neurons, small in size but very important for normal brain fucntioning, enables rapid commnicatiob between two neurons across the neural synapse |
| two types of neurotransmitters: | Excitatory neurotransmitters • Inhibitory neurotransmitters |
| Action potential | an electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron |
| Excitatory effect | when the neurotransmitter increases the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an action potential, happens after binding |
| Glutamate | the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system, has an important role in learning and memory, effects form and strengthen synaptic connections between neurons that are repeatedly activated during learning. enables synaptic plasticity |
| Inhibitory effect | when the neurotransmitter decreases the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an action potential, after binding and supress neural transmission |
| GABA (gammaaminobutyric acid) | the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system has an important role in regulating postsynaptic activation prevents the overexcitation of neurons. reduces anxiety by inhibiting excitatory neural signals, prevents seizures. |
| Neuromodulator | a chemical molecule that has an effect on multiple postsynaptic neurons, modulates neural activity on a larger scale than neurotransmitters as they are released into multiple neural synapses, therefore affects multiple post neurons |
| neuromoduclators effects | widespread modulatory effects, the action of neuromodulators produces relatively long-lasting effects, as they modulate neural activity more slowly than neurotransmitters, must bind to have an affect |
| Neuromodulators can also modulate the effects of neurotransmitters by: | changing the responsiveness of the receptor sites of a particular neurotransmitter, enhancing the excitatory or inhibitory effects of neurotransmitters. • changing the neurotransmitter release pattern of the presynaptic neuron. |
| Dopamine | a neuromodulator primarily responsible for voluntary motor movement, the experience of pleasure, and rewardbased learning |
| dopamine pathways | pathways originate from regions that produce dopamine, including: • the substantia nigra, which is located in the midbrain. • the ventral tegmental area, which is located in the midbrain |
| dopamine effect | Dopamine can have excitatory and inhibitory effects on the postsynaptic neuron. The effect dopamine has depends on the type of receptor sites present at the particular brain location. |
| dopamines role in functioning | important role in coordinating smooth voluntary motor movement, in reward-based learning dopamine is released, in motivation to engage in rewarding behaviours to experience pleasure and this can cause addiction |
| Serotonin | a neuromodulator primarily responsible for the regulation of mood and sleep |
| serotonin pathways | There are pathways in the brain along which serotonin is transmitted. These pathways originate from the raphe nuclei, which are masses of neurons in the brainstem that produce serotonin. |
| serotonin effects | Serotonin has inhibitory effects on the postsynaptic neuron |
| serotonin Role in functioning | important role in mood regulation and stabilisation. Appropriate levels of it in the brain helps to experience positive moods regulating the sleep-wake cycle, influences your quality and quantity of sleep at night, as well as feelings of alert |
| Synaptic plasticity | the ability of synaptic connections to change over time in response to activity or experience |
| mechanisms of synaptic plasticity | hanges being made to a synaptic connection between two neurons eg sprouting • rerouting • pruning. |
| Sprouting | the ability of dendrites or axons to develop new extensions or branches, increases reach |
| Rerouting | the ability of a neuron that is connected to a damaged neuron to create an alternative synaptic connection with an undamaged neuron |
| Pruning | the elimination of synaptic connections that are not adequately activated, accomadate strongger and more essential connections to enhance efficiency of brain functioining |
| Learning | the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviours through experience |
| Memory | the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information that has been previously encountered |
| Synaptic plasticity in memory | Synaptic plasticity is the fundamental mechanism of memory formation that leads to learning. When you form new memories, neural synapses in your brain physically change in response to these experiences. |
| eg of synaptic placticity in memory and learning | Riding a bike: Neurons that are involved in bike riding are coactivated. As Luca continues to practice riding the bike, these neurons are repeatedly coactivated. The synaptic connections strngthen (synaptic plasticity) and a memory trace forms |
| two forms of synaptic plasticity that underlie learning and memory | • long-term potentiation • long-term depression. |
| Long-term potentiation | the long-lasting and experience-dependent strengthening of synaptic connections that are regularly coactivated, experience dependent form of synaptic plasticity |
| Long-term potentiation process | during leaning , repeatedly released into the synaptic gap by the axon terminals of the pres and received by receptor sites of postThis repeated coactivation of the pre and post (repeated high-intensity stimulation) strengthens the synaptic connection |
| increased strength of long term pontentaition | The increased strength of synaptic connections involves structural changes occurring to the neural synapse. These structural changes are the result of the increased release of neurotransmitters, specifically glutamate, into the neural synapse |
| structural changes of long term potentiaition | increased number of receptor sites on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron. • bushier dendrites on the postsynaptic neuron due to sprouting. • increased number of synaptic connections between neurons due to sprouting |
| Long-term depression | the long-lasting and experience-dependent weakening of synaptic connections between neurons that are not regularly coactivated |
| Long-term depression process | If a neural pathway is already made but n longer regularly activated, long-term depression weakens the synaptic connections in this neural pathway that is no longer necessary. involves the infrequent (low intensity) release of neurotransmitters |
| decreased strength of Long-term depression | The decreased strength of synaptic connections involves structural changes occurring to the neural synapse. These structural changes are a result of the decreased release of neurotransmitters into the neural synapse |
| structural changes of long term depression | • decreased number of receptor sites on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron. • decreased number of dendrites on the postsynaptic neuron due to pruning. • decreased number of synaptic connections between neurons due to pruning. |
| Can memory traces by restregthened? | it is important to understand that these weakened memory traces can be restrengthened through long-term potentiation if they are later reactivated. |
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