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Disease and Society
Hum Biol 217, Disease and Society, Exam 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What is Disease? | A disorder of structure or function |
| Where/Who can Disease Occur in? | Humans, animals, plants, etc... |
| Does disease have a solid definition? | No, it has many different definitions and it has changed over time. |
| What disease does most people think of right away? | Infectious disease - those caused by microbes |
| What are the Roles of Microbes? | Most microbes are good and can help us in society. |
| What are the different Microbes? | Pathogens, Food chain (autotrophs, decomposers), Digestive, Antibiotics, Biotechnology, Bioremediation, Disease research, and foods and fermentation. |
| Which Microbe is the bad one? | Pathogens |
| Microbial Abundance | Refers to the quantity of microorganisms present in a specific environment, such as soil or water |
| What is Microbial Abundance measured in? | Absolute abundance and relative abundance |
| Absolute abundance | indicates the actual number of microorganisms present (eg bacteria or fungi) |
| Relative abundance | describes the proportion of a specific microorganism within the total microbial community |
| Drilling cores | Two biospheres |
| environmental versatility | sulfur/methane -based metabolism |
| Undersea Vents | Part of microbial abundance somehow |
| Prokaryotes | 2 domains/super kingdoms (archaea and bacteria) |
| Bacteria | Contains some pathogens, most not though. Science of bacteriology |
| Eukaryotic Microbes - Fungi (kingdom) | Decomposers Single or multicellular Science of Mycology |
| Eukaryotic Parasites | Protozoa (Kingdom) Helminths (worms) |
| Protozoa (Kingdom) | single celled may be pathogenic science of Protozoology |
| Helminths (worms) | microscopic life stages (stages you can see without a scope. Worms!) Science of Parasitology |
| Viruses are... | Acellular |
| Viruses: | a simple structure (capsid, nucleic acid) obligate intracellular growth Science of Virology |
| Smaller relatives of viruses | viroids (plants) Prions |
| Prions | misfolded proteins in the body that cause fatal illnesses in people and animals |
| Taxonomy | Genus Species Viral naming systems |
| Fields of Microbiology | Infection control industrial microbiology biotechnology |
| Additional Fields of Study | Immunology Epidemiology Etiology Bioremediation |
| Immunology | studies the immune system, its functions, and its role in protecting the body from diseases |
| Epidemiology | study of how diseases affect the health and illness of populations. Focuses on the distribution, patterns, and determinants of health-related states |
| Etiology | The cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a disease or condition. |
| Bioremediation | natural process that uses living organisms, primarily microorganisms, to remove or neutralize contaminants from the environment, making it a crucial method for environmental cleanup |
| History of Disease | Curses or spells humors or imbalances Miasmas Etc.. Documented Plagues (leprosy, bubonic plague) |
| Humors or imbalances | The theory of the four humors, developed by Hippocrates and later expanded by Galen, posited that health was maintained by a precise balance of these four substances: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. |
| Humors regarding illness | Each humor was associated with specific qualities, seasons, and temperaments, and an imbalance was believed to cause illness |
| History | Microscopic Development Schleiden/Schwann (cell theory) |
| Microscopic Development | Robert Hooke (microscopic cells) Anton van Leeuwenhoek (lenses, looked at everything) |
| Spontaneous Generation versus Biogenetics | Pasteur (biogenesis wins! - Life comes from other life) Other achievements (fermentation, pasteurization, and rabies vaccines) |
| Germ Theory | Definition: Microbes cause disease Koch (culture, postulates) Semmelweiss Lister |
| Immunology | Edward Jenner Pasteur Metchnikoff |
| Epidemic | CDC describes it as "an unexpected increase in the number of disease cases in a specific geographical area" (Yellow fever, smallpox, measles, and polio) Doesn't necessarily have to be contagious (West Nile Fever and rapid increase in obesity) |
| Pandemic | WHO describes it as "when a diseases growth is exponential" Growth rates skyrocket, each day grows more than the day prior Virus covers wide area, affecting several countries and populations |
| Endemic | Disease outbreak is endemic when it is consistently present but limited to a particular region Makes disease spread and rate predictable Malaria is an example of an endemic |
| The Scientific Method | A way of looking at the world to understand it better |
| How do we think about this stuff? | The Scientific Method: 1) Observe phenomenon 2) Develop hypothesis 3) Make predictions 4) Devise test of predictions 5) Carry out test and analyze results |
| Process of Science | Scientists generally test hypotheses using the scientific method |
| Theory does not mean "hunch" | In science it means the way you interpret a set of facts and is a valid explanation of the phenomena you witnessed |
| Do things change in Science | YES! Examples: shape of our planet, how inheritance works, how atoms function, how solar system functions, number of planets in our solar system (pluto) |
| Role of Experiments | Procedures used to study a phenomenon under known conditions Allows you to predict what will happen if a hypothesis is not wrong Can never prove a hypothesis 100% correct |
| Experimental Design | Control group -A standard for comparison -Identical to experimental group except for variables being studied Sampling Error -Non-representative sample skews results -Minimize by using large samples |
| Limits of Science | Scientific approach cannot provide answers to subjective questions Cannot provide moral, aesthetic, or philosophical standards |
| Confounding Variables | Confounder -A factor other than the one being studied that is associated both with the disease and with the factor being studied. Distorts or masks the effects of another variable on the disease |
| Example of Confounder? | Coffee Study (Coffee and Pancreatic Cancer - smoking is confounder) |
| Robert Koch | First to use solid media in microbiology developed several strains used pure cultures discovered the cause of several infections developed KOCHS POSTULATES |
| Kochs Postulates and Germ Theory | Find evidence of a particular microbe in every case of disease Isolate microbe from an infected and grow in lab Inoculate a susceptible healthy subject and observe for same disease Reisolate the microbe from this subject |
| Kochs Postulates (1-2) | 1) The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms suffering from the disease, but should not be found in healthy organisms 2) The microorganism must be isolated from a disease organism and grown in pure culture |
| Kochs Postulates (3-4) | 3) The cultured organism should cause disease when introduced to a healthy organism 4) The microorganism must be reisoltated from the inoculated diseased experimental host and identified as bein gidentical to the original causative agent |
| Kocks Postulates Limits/Expectations | Some pathogens cannot be cultured in the lab Some diseases are human specific and cannot grow in animals A single pathogen can cause several disease conditions Additionally, a single disease condition can be caused by several different microorganisms |
| Don't Forget! | Science never looks for "Truth" -Looking for ways to understand our world -That means being able to CHANGE how we see things as our knowledge grows -It also means being responsible for what we have learned |
| Host Invasion Terms | Pathogen Contamination Exposure Infection Disease |
| Pathogen | Ability to cause disease in a host (organism that harbors another) |
| Contamination | Microorganisms are present (fomites can play a role) |
| Exposure | Came into contact with pathogen |
| Infection | Multiplication of any parasitic organism in or on the hosts body Infestation is usually used to distinguish larger parasites (worms) |
| Disease | A disturbance in the state of health where the body can't carry out its normal functions |
| Infection/Disease Relationships | Interactions between pathogens and their hosts -May not always show clinical signs or symptoms -But infection can cause disease --Severity varies, +/- permanent effects |
| Infection/Disease Relationships Examples | RN doesn't use aseptic procedures when dressing a wound. Contaminates her hand MD doesn't use aseptic procedures either. MD becomes infected with Staph via a small cut after contaminating hands. MDs wound has developed pus and develops a boil (disease) |
| Pathogenicity | Capacity to produce disease |
| Pathogenicity depends on: | ability to invade host, multiply, and avoid host's defenses -Variable depending on microbe |
| Microbial Count | Amount of organisms entering the body. Some may need many while others only need a few to cause disease |
| Virulence | Intensity of disease. Varies by pathogen and by infected host (carrier state). Can increase or decrease |
| When Virulence decreases... | it is called Attenuation |
| Ex. Virulence Transportation | Lab technique where pathogen is passed from normal host to a new species and then passed through many members of new species. Pathogen adapts to new host so no longer virulent to original host (Pasteur and rabies) (Use in vaccine production) |
| Stages of Pathogenesis | Exposure (portal of entry - mouth, skin, nose, eye, etc...) Adhesion (pathogen has to attach to host cells) Invasion (pathogen spreads into local tissues and may spread to rest of body) Infection (successful multiplication of pathogen) |
| Virulence Factors | help the pathogen colonize and damage the tissue and evade the immune system |
| Immune System - Part of Lymphatic System What is its Function? | Protect the body from damage or disease Self vs. Non-self Detects antigens (foreign invaders) and destroys via: -Phagocytosis/destruction -foreign cell membrane lysis -inactivates pathogens/chemicals -Precipitates/agglutinates cells/molecules |
| White Blood Cell (WBC) = Leukocyte | One function = phagocytosis (garbage can) --Neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils. Monocytes/Macrophages Other Types: T and B lymphocytes - do not phagocytize |
| Leukocyte can also classify as granulocytes and agranulocytes | Granulocytes: neutrophil, basophil, eosinophil Agranulocytes: lymphocytes and monocytes/macrophages |
| 2 General Types of Immune Reactions | 1. Nonspecific Immunity -Rapid response, generalized (not specific) 2. Specific Immunity |
| Nonspecific Immunity; 1st line of defense | -1st Line of Defense --Physical Barriers: skin prevents Ags from getting in --Chemical Barriers: Antimicrobial proteins |
| Nonspecific Immunity; 2nd line of defense | -2nd Line of Defense --Inflammatory Response (bacteria invade, cause damage, and chemicals released) --Phagocytosis: Leukocytes --Interferon = protein produced by virally inflicted cell that inactivates it (flu like symptoms) --Complement |
| Nonspecific, 2nd Line Defenses: Inflammation | 1. Redness: vasodilation, increased blood flow 2. Heat: due to increased blood flow 3. Swelling: ECF increased in tissue 4. Pain: Mechanoreceptors and pain receptors activated by swelling and chemical mediators 5. Loss of Function: due to swelling.. |
| Inflammation Purpose | Attract immune system cells and molecules to injury site tissue repair clean-up crew destroy microbes |
| Steps of Inflammation | 1. Vasoconstriction and clotting, mast cells release cytokines and chemotaxis molecules 2. Vessels then dilate: brings healing factors but makes vessels "leaky" so fluid links into area diapedesis --Edema: accumulation of fluid |
| Digging Deeper in Step One of Inflammation | --Cytokine: Chemical substance produced by white blood cells and tissue cells that regulates development, inflammation, and immunity --Histamine: inflammation mediator that increases vasodilation and vascular permeability |
| Third Step of Inflammation | 3. Resolution: microphages, lymphocytes, and fibroblasts migrate in; initiate immune response and repair; scar may be created |
| Inflammation: Fever | Fever: abnormal elevation in body temperature -Can be caused by a microbe or the I.S. response (toxin, chemical factors from I.S.) |
| Purpose of Fever | Inhibits bacterial replication Impedes bacterial access to food Stimulates immune reactions (This is why doctor may tell you not to lower fever with drugs, etc...) |
| Specific Immunity | 2 Types: Humoral and Cell Mediated Immunity |
| Specific Immunity, 3rd line of defense | Unique, specific reactions to a certain antigen 3 Requirements 1) Antigen enters 2) There is a specific response to that antigen 3) The second time the antigen is encountered, there is "memory" and a quicker response |
| Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) (=HCA) | Glycoproteins found on all body cells except RBCs Receptor plays a vital role in recognition of self by the immune system and in rejection of transplanted tissues "Tolerance" |
| Class 1 MHC | Self, found on all nucleated human cells |
| Class II MHC | On some WBCs, Antigen presenting cells (APCs) |
| APCS = Antigen Presenting Cell | Immune cells that mediate the cellular immune response by processing and presenting antigens for recognition by certain lymphocytes such as T cells -Macrophages -Dendritic cells -Langerhans cells -B cells |
| To be recognized by T cell receptor | Antigens must be modified/processed |
| Specific Immunity: Humoral Immunity | B cell -> Plasma cell -> Abs Antibody = protective protein vs. a specific antigen |
| abs attach to ag to: | 1. Neutralize toxin 2. Agglutinate Ag, Macrophage eats 3. Ab activates complement system and contributes to cell lysis 4. Memory cells |
| B cell activation | 1. Ag can bind and be an APC to helper T 2. B-cell activation 3. Clonal Expansion --1. Make memory cells --2. Plasma cells/ antibody synthesis |
| Antibodies | Abs - immunoglobins - Ig 5 types -1. IgG - 1st exposure, slow -2. IgM - Chronic or 2nd exposure, quicker -3. IgA - mucosal surfaces, leaves blood for tissue -4. IgE - allergy -5. IgD - unknown |
| Specific Immunity: Cell Mediated Immunity |
Created by:
Motato