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critical c4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| reasons are good when? | (1) they support our conclusions and (2) are acceptable |
| when is evidence acceptable | ● Evidence is acceptable when it (1) comes from a reliable source and (2) is neither undermined or overridden by other evidence we have |
| Source of evidence is reliable when | it provides accurate information most of the time ○ Matter of degree ○ Depends on optimal conditions ○ Topic-relative |
| When considering whether an argument’s premise is true, we need to consider whether | its source is reliable. If not, then it would be unreasonable to accept the premise |
| most reliable sources of evidence | ● Observation, measurement, and testimony are our most reliable sources of evidence |
| Evidence is overridden when it | (1) conflicts with evidence from a known reliable source, (2) directly conflicts with expert consensus, and (3) directly conflicts with what we already have good reason to believe |
| Indirect conflict | one indicates that the other is not acceptable by calling into question the reliability of the source of evidence |
| Stronger evidence undermines other | undermined evidence = unacceptable |
| Stronger evidence overrides the other | overridden evidence = unacceptable |
| Appeal to ignorance | mistake to believe something just because you do not yet have evidence that it is false → make sure sources are reliable and that there is no conflicting evidence |
| Observation | source of evidence; memory = store-house for evidence |
| Before trusting either (observation and memory), ask: | (1) is it reliable for the topic? (2) is it reliable enough? (3) are the conditions optimal? |
| Testimonial evidence is acceptable only if: | The evidence must be on an appropriate topic - The witness is properly trained - The witness is properly informed - The witness is unbiased |
| if a testimony seems unacceptable, you must | point out which conditions it fails to meet |
| an unacceptable testimony could still be true | true |
| Advertising: | celebrities are often used to sell products, though they might not be trained, informed, or unbiased in relation to the product being sold → can they be trusted? |
| News media: | some reporters are not trained experts on issues (opinion columns); they are informed by sources – of which some are anonymous – and sometimes they simply repeat what their sources say without critically thinking about it (passive reporting) |
| advertising/news Biases include: | reporter bias, corporate bias, and cultural bias |
| examples of biases in Academic journals | Overstating results,- Funding bias → eg. dark chocolate shown as healthier because of companies, funding journals’ research to portray this for profits, Publishing bias → dont publish negative inconclusive results or failures to reproduce studies |
| Questionnaires: | find out what people believe about some topic or other |
| Evidence from surveys are acceptable when: | (1) survey questions are not bad, (2) survey subjects are properly trained and informed, and (3) there is no researcher or subject bias |
| subject bias | subject bias is when subjects may be motivated to lie or exaggerate, |
| researcher bias | researcher bias is when researchers might bias the results by the way they ask the questions (leading) |
| Double blind survey: | neither subject nor researcher know which question is the target question among many different topics |
| What makes a survey question bad? | It's ambiguous, charged, loaded, or badly ordered |
| What's the problem with public opinion polls? | A: People are asked about topics they lack knowledge on, forcing a position when they're actually undecided |
| Epistemic injustice | • Assuming someone isn't an expert without good reason = a mistake (beliefs always need good reasons) • Applied to a whole group → systemic injustice • Can lead to prejudice and discrimination |
| Forms of knowing | Mistake to conclude that someone is not an expert on a topic just because they cannot say how or what they know → some forms of knowing (often empirical knowledge) are hard to put into words |
| Knowledge preservation | - written and passed down from generation to generation; however, some of that knowledge can be preserved in a different form (orally/taught) → mistake to assume someone is not an expert just because their knowledge is not preserved in writing |
| Is reliability all-or-nothing? | No — it's a matter of degree; some sources are more reliable than others |
| Does reliability change based on situation? | Yes — a source may be more reliable under certain/optimal conditions than others |
| Is a source reliable on all topics | No — reliability is topic-relative; a source can be reliable on one topic but not another |
| What is the full definition of a reliable source? | A source that provides accurate information most of the time; reliability is a matter of degree, depends on optimal conditions, and is topic-relative |
| Can undermined evidence still be true? | Yes — it's unreasonable to accept it, but it can still be true |
| What's the difference between overridden and undermined evidence? | Overridden = directly contradicted by stronger evidence; undermined = its source is shown to be unreliable |
| What is perceptual observation? | 5 senses → rely on our observations of our surroundings throughout life |
| proprioception: | spatial awareness, bodily states, etc. |
| When is perceptual observation reliable? | Only under certain conditions (e.g. sight needs sufficient light) and for visible/appropriate topics |
| Can perceptual observation improve? | Yes — it improves with time, skill, and practice |
| What is an optical illusion? | tricks of light/explanations involve how light works |
| Cognitive illusions: | related to the way our visual system is structured/how it works |
| What is memory's role in evidence? | Not a source of evidence, but a repository (storage) of evidence used to sustain beliefs |
| Why can memory be unreliable? | Evidence can be modified or biased during storage or retrieval |
| What are false memories? | Vivid, detailed memories that feel real but were created by leading questions or fake stories |
| What is testimonial evidence? | Evidence derived from what other people tell us |
| When is testimonial evidence acceptable? | When (1) it's on an appropriate topic, (2) witness is properly trained, (3) witness is properly informed, (4) witness is unbiased |
| Why does topic matter for expert evidence? | A source may be reliable on one topic but not another |
| What is an expert? | A source that is reliable on a specific topic |
| When are there no experts on a topic? | In matters of taste, new fields of study, or topics with no consensus |
| What is a trained witness? | One who is reliable and likely to give true testimony on a specific topic (e.g. good eyesight for eyewitnesses) |
| What's the difference between trained and informed? | Trained = has the skill; informed = has actually applied it in the specific situation |
| Can an expert give unacceptable testimony? | Yes — if they aren't informed about the specific situation/instance |
| What should a witness do if uninformed? | Stay quiet or admit ignorance rather than give ill-informed testimony |
| Why must a witness be unbiased? | Bias creates motivation to lie, which undermines the evidence |
| When is testimony acceptable regarding bias? | Only when there is no reason to suspect the witness is biased |
| How do we assess witness bias? | By examining their motivations and weighing the pros and cons |
| When is testimony unacceptable? | When the topic is inappropriate, witness is untrained, uninformed, or biased |
| When is testimony appropriate? | When there are recognized experts who are trained, informed, and not motivated to lie |
| What is an Ad Hominem mistake? | Assuming testimony is false just because the witness is unreliable or biased |
| Why is Ad Hominem a mistake? | It confuses undermining (questioning reliability) with overriding (proving content is false) — testimony can still be true from a biased source |
| What can and can't you conclude from an unreliable witness? | You CAN conclude the witness is unreliable; you CANNOT conclude the testimony is false |
| What kind of evidence are ads? | A special case of testimonial evidence aimed at generating sales |
| What questions should you ask about ad testimony? | Is the topic appropriate? Are there experts? Is the spokesperson trained, informed, and unbiased? |
| How can ads reduce bias? | By including statistics or testimonials from independent organizations; also regulated by government rules |
| What should you do if ad testimony is unacceptable? | Withhold belief |
| What kind of evidence are news reports? | Testimonial evidence — a reporter making claims about a topic |
| Are reporters experts on their topics? | Not always — they're trained in collecting/presenting info, not necessarily the topic itself; they often rely on field experts |
| What is passive reporting? | When a reporter accepts evidence without fact-checking or questioning its acceptability |
| Why does a reporter need background research? | To know what questions to ask experts and to fact-check claims rather than taking them at face value |
| What is reporter bias? | Pressure to produce exciting stories over dry, factual ones |
| What is corporate bias in news? | News outlets prioritizing stories that attract their audience over important but less engaging topics |
| What is cultural bias in news? | Favoring local stories over distant ones; ethnocentrism in how stories are told |
| How do you avoid biased news reporting? | Use multiple, varied news sources |
| steps to diaphragm an argument |
Created by:
aishamahboob