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Exam 2
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Hemoglobin | carries oxygen from lungs to tissues (main job: O₂ transport) |
| Low Hemoglobin | less oxygen reaching cells → less energy (fatigue) |
| Pallor | pale skin from blood being redirected to vital organs (vasoconstriction) |
| Dyspnea on Exertion | shortness of breath during activity (body trying to get more O₂) |
| Tachycardia | heart pumps faster to circulate limited oxygen |
| Oxygen | O₂ |
| Carbon Dioxide | CO₂ |
| Hypercapnia | high CO₂ in the blood (poor ventilation) |
| Hypocapnia | low CO₂ in the blood (breathing too fast) |
| Hypoxia | low oxygen in the tissues (cell problem) |
| Hypercarbia | high CO₂ in the blood (same as hypercapnia) |
| Pulmonary Embolus | blood clot that travels to lungs and blocks pulmonary artery (sudden SOB) |
| Vascular Occlusion | blocked blood flow in a vessel |
| Hypertrophy | enlargement (increase in cell size) |
| Pneumo | air |
| Thorax | chest |
| Megaloblastic Anemia | anemia caused by impaired DNA synthesis (large RBCs) |
| Pulmonary Edema | fluid buildup in alveoli that interferes with oxygen exchange |
| Orthopnea | shortness of breath when lying down (better sitting up) |
| Polycythemia | increased red blood cells |
| Erythropoietin (EPO) | kidney hormone that increases RBC production when oxygen is low |
| Emphysema | damaged alveoli that trap air and reduce gas exchange (air trapping, barrel chest) |
| Hemostasis | process the body uses to stop bleeding |
| Petechiae | tiny red or purple dots on skin (usually from low platelets) |
| LDL | bad cholesterol that carries fat to arteries causing plaque buildup |
| HDL | good cholesterol that removes fat from arteries and takes it to liver |
| Atherosclerosis | buildup of fatty plaque in arteries that hardens and reduces blood flow |
| Leukocytosis | high white blood cell count (body responding to something) |
| Pleural | thin membrane lining lungs and chest wall |
| Sputum | mucus coughed up from lungs or airway |
| Lobar Pneumonia | infection in one section (lobe) of the lung |
| Hypotension | low blood pressure |
| Chronic Hypoxia | long-term low oxygen levels in tissues |
| Iron Deficiency Anemia | microcytic, hypochromic RBCs (small, pale cells) |
| Vitamin B12 Deficiency | large RBCs + possible neurologic symptoms (tingling) |
| Pernicious Anemia | B12 deficiency due to lack of intrinsic factor (stomach problem) |
| Sickle Cell Crisis | low O₂ → sickling → vascular occlusion → severe pain |
| Secondary Polycythemia | increased RBCs due to chronic hypoxia (compensation) |
| Low WBC | increased infection risk (immunocompromised) |
| Primary Hemostasis | platelet plug formation (platelet problem if abnormal) |
| Hemophilia A | factor VIII deficiency → prolonged aPTT (bleeding into joints) |
| DIC | excessive clotting + bleeding (clotting factors used up) |
| Crackles | bubbling sound from fluid in alveoli (fluid problem) |
| Cyanosis | bluish skin from low oxygen (late sign) |
| Hypoxemia | low oxygen in blood (low PaO₂) |
| Respiratory Acidosis | high CO₂ → low pH (slow breathing) |
| Respiratory Alkalosis | low CO₂ → high pH (fast breathing) |
| Atelectasis | collapse of alveoli (postoperative risk) |
| Pneumothorax | air in pleural space → lung collapse (absent breath sounds) |
| Tension Pneumothorax | air trapped under pressure → hypotension + emergency |
| Chronic Bronchitis | productive cough ≥3 months for 2 years (mucus problem) |
| COPD | irreversible airflow limitation (chronic lung disease) |
| Asthma | reversible bronchoconstriction + inflammation (wheezing) |
| ARDS | severe alveolar damage → fluid leakage + hypoxemia |
| Tunica Intima | inner layer of blood vessel (endothelium) |
| Tunica Media | middle smooth muscle layer of vessel (controls constriction) |
| Tunica Adventitia | outer connective tissue layer of vessel (support layer) |
| Hematopoiesis | production of blood cells in bone marrow |
| Reticulocyte Count | measures bone marrow function (new RBC production) |
| Hematocrit | percentage of blood made up of red blood cells |
| Mean Corpuscular Volume (MCV) | average size of red blood cells |
| Microcytic | small red blood cells |
| Macrocytic | large red blood cells |
| Hypochromic | pale red blood cells (low hemoglobin) |
| Intrinsic Factor | protein from stomach required for B12 absorption |
| Aplastic Anemia | bone marrow failure causing low RBCs, WBCs, and platelets (pancytopenia) |
| Pancytopenia | decreased RBCs, WBCs, and platelets |
| Hemolytic Anemia | anemia caused by excessive destruction of RBCs |
| Hyperbilirubinemia | elevated bilirubin from RBC breakdown (jaundice) |
| Splenomegaly | enlarged spleen |
| Hemarthrosis | bleeding into joints |
| Von Willebrand Disease | hereditary clotting disorder affecting platelet adhesion |
| Thrombophilia | increased tendency to form abnormal blood clots |
| Myelodysplastic Syndrome | ineffective blood cell production in bone marrow |
| Acute Leukemia | rapid increase of immature, nonfunctional WBCs |
| Chronic Leukemia | slower increase of more mature but abnormal WBCs |
| Neutropenia | low neutrophils (high infection risk) |
| Arteriosclerosis | hardening and loss of elasticity of arteries |
| Ventilation | movement of air in and out of lungs |
| Perfusion | movement of blood through pulmonary capillaries |
| Ventilation-Perfusion Mismatch | imbalance between airflow and blood flow in lungs |
| Tidal Volume | amount of air inhaled or exhaled during normal breathing |
| Residual Volume | air remaining in lungs after maximum exhalation |
| Vital Capacity | maximum air moved in and out with forced breath |
| Hyperventilation | rapid breathing that lowers CO₂ |
| Hypoventilation | slow breathing that raises CO₂ |
| Kussmaul Respirations | deep, rapid breathing associated with metabolic acidosis |
| Stridor | high-pitched sound from upper airway obstruction |
| Rhonchi | harsh breath sounds from thick mucus in airways |
| Intermittent Claudication | leg pain with walking due to poor arterial blood flow |
| Aortic Aneurysm | localized dilation and weakening of the aorta |
| Fusiform Aneurysm | circumferential dilation of artery |
| Saccular Aneurysm | localized bulging on one side of artery |
| Dissecting Aneurysm | tear in vessel wall allowing blood to separate layers |
| Varicose Veins | dilated, tortuous superficial veins (valve weakness) |
| Thrombophlebitis | clot formation with vein inflammation |
| Phlebothrombosis | clot formation without prior inflammation |
| Bronchioles | small airways leading to alveoli |
| Alveoli | tiny air sacs where gas exchange occurs |
| Surfactant | substance that reduces surface tension and prevents alveolar collapse |
| Hypercapnic Drive | breathing stimulated by high CO₂ (normal control) |
| Hypoxic Drive | breathing stimulated by low O₂ (chronic lung disease) |
| External Respiration | gas exchange between alveoli and blood |
| Internal Respiration | gas exchange between blood and tissues |
| Oxyhemoglobin Dissociation Curve | relationship between oxygen and hemoglobin binding |
| Bronchoscopy | procedure to visualize airways and obtain biopsy |
| Bronchiolitis | inflammation of small bronchioles (common in children) |
| Bronchopneumonia | patchy infection throughout lungs |
| Legionnaires’ Disease | pneumonia caused by Legionella (water source) |
| Pneumocystis Pneumonia | opportunistic infection in immunocompromised patients |
| Tubercle | granuloma formed in tuberculosis infection |
| Miliary Tuberculosis | widespread TB dissemination to multiple organs |
| Cavitation | hollow space formed in lung tissue from necrosis |
| Histoplasmosis | fungal lung infection from inhaled spores |
| Anthrax | bacterial infection from spore exposure (skin, inhalation, GI) |
| Cystic Fibrosis | genetic disorder causing thick mucus in lungs and pancreas |
| Bronchogenic Carcinoma | primary lung cancer arising from bronchial epithelium |
| Paraneoplastic Syndrome | hormone-like effects produced by tumor cells |
| Aspiration | inhalation of food or liquid into lungs |
| Obstructive Sleep Apnea | repeated airway collapse during sleep |
| Status Asthmaticus | severe asthma attack unresponsive to treatment (emergency) |
| Cor Pulmonale | right-sided heart failure from chronic lung disease |
| Bronchiectasis | permanent dilation of bronchi from repeated infection |
| Restrictive Lung Disease | decreased lung expansion and reduced total lung capacity |
| Pneumoconiosis | lung disease from inhaled occupational dust |
| Pulmonary Hypertension | elevated pressure in pulmonary arteries |
| Pulmonary Angiography | imaging test to detect pulmonary embolus |
| Pleural Effusion | fluid accumulation in pleural space |
| Thoracocentesis | removal of pleural fluid |
| Open Pneumothorax | air enters pleural space through chest wall wound |
| Closed Pneumothorax | air enters pleural space from lung tear |
| Flail Chest | rib fractures causing paradoxical chest movement |
| Infant Respiratory Distress Syndrome | premature infant with surfactant deficiency |
| Acute Respiratory Failure | inability to maintain adequate oxygenation or CO₂ removal |
| Nephron | functional unit of kidney that forms urine |
| Glomerulus | capillary network where filtration begins |
| Bowman Capsule | structure that collects filtrate from glomerulus |
| Filtration | movement of fluid from blood into nephron (cells and protein stay in blood) |
| Reabsorption | return of water, nutrients, and electrolytes from tubule to blood |
| Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) | increases water reabsorption in distal tubule and collecting duct |
| Aldosterone | increases sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion |
| Atrial Natriuretic Hormone (ANH) | decreases sodium and water reabsorption |
| Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) | rate at which kidneys filter blood |
| Creatinine Clearance | test used to assess GFR |
| Proteinuria | presence of protein in urine (glomerular damage) |
| Hematuria | blood in urine |
| Bacteriuria | bacteria present in urine |
| Urinary Casts | cylindrical structures indicating kidney tubule inflammation |
| Azotemia | elevated nitrogen wastes in blood (renal failure sign) |
| Uremia | severe accumulation of waste products in blood |
| Dialysis | artificial removal of wastes and excess fluid |
| Hemodialysis | blood filtered through external machine |
| Peritoneal Dialysis | peritoneum used as semipermeable membrane |
| Cystitis | inflammation of bladder |
| Pyelonephritis | infection of kidney |
| Glomerulonephritis | immune-mediated inflammation of glomeruli |
| Nephrotic Syndrome | increased glomerular permeability causing massive protein loss |
| Hypoalbuminemia | low albumin in blood |
| Hydronephrosis | dilation of kidney from urine obstruction |
| Urolithiasis | formation of urinary stones |
| Renal Colic | severe flank pain from ureter obstruction |
| Nephrosclerosis | hardening of renal blood vessels from hypertension |
| Acute Renal Failure | sudden decline in kidney function |
| Chronic Renal Failure | gradual irreversible kidney destruction |
| Oliguria | low urine output |
| Anuria | absence of urine output |
| Hyperkalemia | elevated potassium (dangerous for heart) |
| Hypocalcemia | low calcium level |
| Hyperphosphatemia | elevated phosphate level |
| First Line Defense | physical and chemical barriers (skin, mucous membranes) |
| Second Line Defense | inflammation and phagocytosis (nonspecific) |
| Third Line Defense | specific immune response (antibodies, T cells) |
| Inflammation | protective response to tissue injury (-itis) |
| Histamine | chemical mediator causing vasodilation and increased permeability |
| Bradykinin | mediator that stimulates pain receptors |
| Vasodilation | widening of blood vessels (causes redness, warmth) |
| Edema | swelling from fluid shift into tissues |
| Chemotaxis | attraction of immune cells to injury site |
| Exudate | fluid with proteins and cells that leaks into tissue |
| Purulent Exudate | thick yellow-green pus (infection) |
| Serous Exudate | clear watery fluid |
| Granuloma | mass of immune cells around foreign material |
| Glucocorticoids | anti-inflammatory drugs that suppress immune response |
| Hypertrophic Scar | excessive fibrous tissue overgrowth |
| Keloid | raised overgrowth of scar tissue |
| Adhesions | bands of scar tissue joining normally separate structures |
| First Intention Healing | clean wound edges heal together |
| Second Intention Healing | open wound heals with more scar formation |
| Full-Thickness Burn | destruction of all skin layers |
| Rule of Nines | method to estimate burn surface area |
| Hypermetabolism | increased metabolic rate during burn recovery |
| Epidermis | outer avascular skin layer |
| Dermis | connective tissue layer with nerves and vessels |
| Hypodermis | subcutaneous fat layer |
| Keratin | protein that waterproofs skin |
| Melanin | pigment that determines skin color |
| Albinism | lack of melanin production |
| Vitiligo | localized loss of pigmentation |
| Pruritus | itching sensation |
| Contact Dermatitis | inflammatory reaction from allergen or irritant |
| Urticaria | hives from type I hypersensitivity |
| Atopic Dermatitis | chronic allergic eczema |
| Psoriasis | autoimmune skin disorder with rapid keratinocyte turnover |
| Pemphigus | autoimmune blistering disorder |
| Scleroderma | excessive collagen deposition causing skin tightening |
| Cellulitis | bacterial infection of dermis and subcutaneous tissue |
| Impetigo | contagious superficial bacterial infection (children) |
| Necrotizing Fasciitis | rapidly spreading tissue-destroying infection |
| Herpes Simplex Virus (HSV) | virus causing recurrent vesicular lesions |
| Human Papillomavirus (HPV) | virus causing warts |
| Tinea | fungal skin infection (ringworm) |
| Scabies | mite infestation causing intense itching |
| Pediculosis | lice infestation |
| Actinic Keratosis | precancerous lesion from sun exposure |
| Squamous Cell Carcinoma | malignant tumor of epidermis |
| Malignant Melanoma | highly metastatic cancer of melanocytes |
| Kaposi Sarcoma | vascular tumor seen in immunocompromised patients |
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