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ch. 17
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what are the two types of senses the human body has | general and special senses |
| what makes up general senses | pain, temperature, touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception (body location) |
| what makes up the special seneses | olfaction, vision, gustation, equilibrium, and hearing |
| receptors for special senses are ___ than general senses | more specialized/compex |
| sensory receptors are | special cells or cells that provide your CNS with information about internal or external conditions |
| olfaction | smell is detected by olfactory organs |
| smell is detected by olfactory organs where | in the nasal cavity |
| the olfactory organ is made up of | olfactory epithelium, lamina propria, and olfactory nerve |
| what is olfactory epithelium | has "smell receptors" |
| what is lamina propria | underlying connective tissues which produces mucus |
| olfaction: organic molecules in the are land on receptors are called | odorant binding proteins |
| in the nose, when odorant proteins bind to receptors this causes what | they open NA++ channels and start action potenial |
| what happens to receptors with age | the number of receptors decline with age |
| which cranial nerve is respnsible for smell | olfactory nerve or cranial nerve one |
| what is olfaction | smell |
| what is smell or olfaction detected by | olfactory organs in the nasal cavity |
| the olfactory organ is made up of | 10-20 million olfactory receptors cells and can distinguish between 2000-4000 smells |
| gustation | taste |
| taste receptors are also called | gustatory receptors |
| where are taste receptors found on (kids) | tongue, pharynx, and larynx |
| where are taste receptors found on (adults) | only on the tongue |
| gustation or taste receptors are distributed along | the superior surface of the tongue |
| lingual papillae | contian taste receptors called taste buds (about 3000) |
| what are the types of papillae | filifom, fungiform, and circumvallate |
| papillae: filiform | does not have taste receptors - tactile sensation |
| papillae: fungiform | does contain taste buds/receptor - sweet, sour, salty, bitter |
| papillae: circumvallate | found only in the back of the tongue |
| each taste bud contains how many receptor cells | 40 receptors cells (gustatory cells) |
| what binds to the receptors proteins of the gustatory cell | dissolved chemicals |
| gustation: dissolved chemicals bind to | the recptor proteins of the gustatory cells |
| there are only 4 types of taste, what are they | sweet, sour, salt(y), and bitter |
| what is a special 5 taste | umami - broth |
| what is a special 6th taste | water, H2O |
| taste is monitored by what cranil nerves | facial (7), glossopharyngeal (9), and vagus (10) |
| accessories of the eye: eyelids | palpebrae - act as windshield wipers to clean the eye |
| accessories of the eye: palpebral fissure | gap between the 2 eyelids |
| accessories of the eye: medial canthus and lateral canthus | where two eyelids connects |
| accessories of the eye: eye lashes | prevent foreign matter from reaching the eye |
| accessories of the eye: tarsal glands | along inner margin of the eyelid; that secrete a lipid rich product that prevents eyelids from sticking together |
| accessories of the eye: conjunctiva | epithelial surface of the eye/eyelid that contacts the eye/eyelid |
| what are the two types of conjuctiva | palpebral and ocular conjunctiva |
| palpebral conjuctiva | covers inner surface of eyelids |
| ocular conjuctiva | bulbar conjuctiva - covers anterior surface of eye |
| palpebral and ocular conjuctiva will | rub against each other |
| what extends to the edge of cornea | ocular conjuctiva |
| conjunctivitis | pinkeye - results from damage or irritation of the conjuctival surface |
| accessories of the eye: lacrimal apparatus | produces, distributesm and removes tears |
| the lacrimal aparatus consists of | lacrimal gland, lacrimal gland ducts, lacrimal puncta, lacrimal canaliculi, lacrimal sac, and nasolacrimal duct |
| lacrimal gland | tear glands located superior and laterla to the eye |
| tears contain | lysozyme which attacks bacteria |
| lacrimal gland ducts | made up of 10-12 ducts |
| lacrimal puncta | two small holes that allows tears ot drain from eye surface |
| lacrimal canaliculi | where tears drain from the lacrimal puncta |
| lacrimal sac | tears come from canaliculi to lacrinal sac as they drain |
| nasolacrimal duct | this delivers the tears inot the nasal cavity |
| what are the 3 layers of the eye | fibrous tunic, vascular tunic, neural tunic |
| what layer is the fibrous tunic | outer layer |
| what is the fibrous tunic consists of | sclera, cornea, canal of schlem and limbus |
| sclear | white of the eye |
| cornea | transpart area, bulb |
| canal schlem | delivers excess aqueous humor back to veins |
| limbus | the border between the sclera and cornea |
| what does the fibrous tunic have and primarily made up of | this area has blood vessels and nerves and is primarily made up of collagen and elastic fibers |
| what layer is the vascular tunic | middle layer of the eye |
| what does the vascular tunic contain | blood vessels, lympathic vessels, and eye muscles |
| vascular tunic: provides | route for blood and lympth vessels |
| vascular tunic: regulates | amount of light that enters the eye |
| vascular tunic: secretes and reabsorbs | the aqueous humor that circulates within the eye |
| vascular tunic: controls | shape of lens |
| the vascular tunic consists of | iris, ciliary body, choroid, ora serrata, and pupil |
| vascular tunic: iris | the area around the pupil that can contract and dilate causing the diamter of the pupil to change its size |
| the iris has 2 sets of muscles | pupillary constricitor muscles and pupillary dilator muscle |
| pupillary constrictor muscles | these cause constriction of pupil; reduces diamter of pupil |
| pupillary dilator muscle | these dilate pupil; increases the diamter of pupil |
| vascular tunic: ciliary body | this is where the iris attatches to the eye; this keeps the lens centered in regards to the pupil |
| vascular tunic: choroid | a vascular layer that delivers O2 and nutrients to the eye |
| vascular tunic: pupil | determines amount of light allowed into eye; area between iris |
| vascular tunic: ora serrate | junction between the retina and the ciliary body |
| what layer is the neural tunic | innermost area of the eye |
| what is neural tunic also called | retina |
| what are the two layers of the neural tunic | pigmented part and neural part |
| neural tunic: pigmented part | outer layer; absorbs light and passes it to neural part |
| neural tunic: neural part | inner layer; intergrates the visual infromation (photoreceptors) |
| neural tunic: photoreceptors | cells that detect light |
| what are the two types of photoreptors | rods and cones |
| rods | allow you to see in dim light (nighttime) but does not allow us to see in color; most numerous |
| cones | allows you to see colors and used in times of bright light (daytime) |
| bipolar cells, ganglion cells, fovea, and optic nerve are part of what layer | neural tunic |
| detached retina | when the neural part is seperated from the pigmented part of the retina due to exteme force/blow |
| macula lutea | rods are not present here |
| fovea | is in the center of the "macula lutea" and has the highest number of cones and thus gives the sharpest vision |
| when you look dircetly at an object you focus | the image on the fovea |
| optic disk | location of the optic nerve (NII) where NO photorecptors located; this is also called the blind spot |
| what are the two cavities of the eye | posterior and anterior cavity |
| posterior cavity | vitreous chamber - is larger than the anterior cavity; this is filled wiht vitreous humor |
| anterior cavity | has 2 chambers; contains aqueous humor |
| anterior cavity: anterior chamber | extends from the cornea to the iris |
| what does the anterior chamber contian | aqueous humor, which helps the eye to keep its shape; also fluid circulates to remove waste and provide nutrients |
| anterior cavity: posterior chamber | extends from the iris to ciliary body also has aqueous humor |
| when light passes from one medium with different density (air/water) to another medium, it causes | causes the image to arc |
| when an image arc's it | it is said to be refracted |
| the ___ of the eye also provides additional refraction so that the image is ___ towards the __ __ | lens, refracted, focal point |
| the distance from the center of the lensto the focal point is called | the focal distance |
| the focal distance is determined by 2 factors | the distance from object to the lens and the shape of the lens |
| the distance from the object to the lens | the focal distance increases as an object moves closer to the lens |
| the shape of the lens | the rounder the lens (causes more refraction) the more the focal distance decreases |
| accommodation | changing the shape of the lens to focus the image on the retina |
| what are accommodation problems | emmetropia, myopia, hyperopia, radial keratotomy, photo refractive keratectomy, and astigmatism |
| emmetropia | normal vision; image is focused on retina |
| myopia | near sighted - image is focused short of retina; correct with divergin lens |
| hyperopia | far sighted - image is focused past/beyond retina; correct with converging lens |
| radial keratotomy | cut cornea to change shape |
| photo refractive keratectomy (PRK) | uses a laser to cut the cornea |
| astigmatism | the cornear is not properly curved |
| photo reception: step 1 | photon of light hits a receptor/protein called rhodopsin |
| what is rhodopsin made up of | opsin and11-cis retinal |
| what happens when light hits rhodopsin | 11-cis retinal becoms activated switches to 11-trans retinal |
| what does 11-trans retinal activate | opsin |
| photo reception: step 2 | opsin activates transducin |
| what does transducin activate | activates PDE (phosphodiesterase) which breaks downcGMP |
| when cGMP is under normal conditions what happens | it is bound to a recptor on the membrane which keeps NA+ channels open |
| photo reception: step 3 | When cGMP levels decrease Na+ channels close. cGMP normally binds to the channels to keep them open |
| photo reception: step 4 | As Na+ is reduced inside of the cell due to Na+/K+ pump, then the cell repolarizes |
| what happens when membrane hyperpolarizes | the neurotransmitter released decreases |
| what happens when the neurotransmitter released decreases | 11-trans retinal is converted back to 11-cis retinal by a process called bleaching |
| what are the three cones | red, blue, green |
| colorblindness | when one or more cone stops working |
| The Visual Pathway | Begins at photoreceptors and ends at visual cortex of the cerebral hemispheres |
| The Visual Pathway: step 1 | Photoreceptors (rods/cones) send stimuli to bipolar cells, which send stimuli to ganglion cells |
| The Visual Pathway: step 2 | Ganglion sends stimuli to “optic disk” then penetrates wall of eye then travels by the optic nerve to diencephalon (at optic chiasm) |
| The Visual Pathway: step 3 | Stimuli next travels to “lateral geniculate nuclei” and to “cerebral hemisphere” |
| what are the divisons of the ear | external, middle, and inner |
| external or outer ear | visible section which collects and directs sound, fleshy part |
| Middle ear | consists of petrous portion of the temporal bone |
| inner ear | contains sensory organs for hearing |
| external or outer ear consists of | auricle (pinna), external auditory canal (EAC), tympanic membrane, and ceruminous glands |
| auricle (pinna) | which collects and directs sound toward “external auditory canal” (EAC) |
| where does the EAC end at | the tympanic membrane (eardrum) |
| the tympanic membrane (eardrum) | membrane is a thin semi-transparent sheet |
| what does the the tympanic membrane (eardrum) seperate | external ear from middle ear |
| what does Ceruminous glands produce | cerumen (wax) that protects the ear from bacteria |
| another name for the middle ear | tympanic cavity |
| what is apart of the middle ear | auditory ossicles, tympanic membrane, oval windowm, and auditory tube |
| what is the middle ear filled with | air |
| what does the middles ear | communicates with nasopharynx through auditory tube (eustachian tube) |
| how can microbes cause infection | microbes travel from nasopharynx into auditory tube and cause infection |
| where are auditory ossicles located | in the middle ear |
| what do auditory ossicles do | pass vibration of sound waves from the membrane and turn it into mechanical waves |
| what are the 3 bones that makes up the auditory ossicles | malleus, incus, and stapes |
| malleus | hammer - attaches to tympanic membrane |
| incus | anvil - middles ossicle; attaches to both hammer and stirrup |
| stapes | stirrup - attaches to the inner ear |
| what do the two muscles in the middle ear do | protect the membrane and ossicles from violent movements under noisy conditions |
| what are the two muscles in the middle ear | tensory tympani and stapedius muscle |
| tensor tympani | inserts on malleus, stiffens membrane |
| stapedius muscle | inserts on stapes |
| what makes up the inner ear | semicircular canals, oval window, round window, vestibules, cochlea, and bony labryinth of inner ear |
| what does the inner ear do | equilbrium and hearing occurs by receptors of inner ear at membranous labyrinth |
| membranous labyrinht | a fluid (endolymph) filled chamber |
| bony labyrinth | a dense bone covering that protects the membranous labyrinth |
| what flows between the bony and membraous labyrinth | perilymph (similar to CSF) on both sides of the membranous labyrinth |
| what makes up the vestibulocohlear apperatus | vestibule and cochlear |
| vestibule | top portion (head of snail) gives equilbrium |
| what makes up the vestibule | utricle, saccule, and semicircular canals (3) |
| what are semicircular canals | enclose semicircular ducts |
| cochlea | spiral shaped (snail shape), receptors lcated here provide sense of hearing |
| what does the vestibule tell us | the location of the head by monitoring gravity, rotation and linear acceleration |
| what is utricle and saccule | chambers separated by endolymphatic duct |
| what do these chambers have | structures called masculae which contain the hair cells |
| where do the hair cells extend to | the hair cells extend into a gelatinous matrix |
| what is on top of the matrix | packed carbonite crystals called statoconia (ear stone) |
| what is both the statoconia (ear stone) and gelatinous matrix | otolith |
| where is the statoconia when the head is in a normal position | statoconia sit atop of the gel matrix |
| where is the statoconia when the head is tilted | gravity causes the statoconia to shift which causes the sterocilia/kinocilium on hair cells to move |
| what is equlibrium controlled by | semicircular ducts/canals and utricle and sacule |
| how does semicircular ducts/glands controll equilibrium | rotation movements, body position |
| how does utricle and sacule control equilibrium | stationary/gravity or linear movement |
| rotation movement of the head is determined by | the anterior, posterior, and lateral semicircular ducts |
| what is in each semicircular ducts | an ampulla |
| what is an ampulla | an expanded region that contains hair cells, on structure called crista |
| where is the crista | at the base of the har cells |
| where do hair cells extend to | hair cells have extensions (sterocilia, kinocilium) which extend into a gelatinous structure called cupula |
| what does the cupula have density like | density like that of perilymph |
| shaking head yes activates what | anterior semicircular duct |
| shaking head no activates hwat | lateral semicircular duct |
| tilting head from side to side activates what | posterior semicircular duct |
| what does cochlea provide | rececptors located here provides sense of hearing |
| what provides hearing | receptors in cochlear duct |
| how is frequency of sound determined | determined by which ever part of the cochlear duct that is stimulated (basal) |
| how is intensity (volume) deterimned | by number of hair cells activated |
| where does the cochlear ducts located | between vestibular ducts and the tympanic ducts |
| what is the organ of corti | the area of the cochlear duct that contains the hair cells |
| what makes up the organ of corti | basilar and tectoral membranous |
| what does the basilar membranous seperate | the cochlear duct from the tympanic duct |
| Steps in Producing an Auditory Sensation: step 1 | Sound waves arrive at tympanic membrane |
| Steps in Producing an Auditory Sensation: step 2 | Movement of membrane causes movement of ossicles |
| Steps in Producing an Auditory Sensation: step 3 | Movement of stapes at oval window causes pressure waves on perilymph of vestibular duct. |
| Steps in Producing an Auditory Sensation: step 4 | The pressure waves distorts the “basilar membrane” on way toward “round window” of “tympanic duct” |
| Steps in Producing an Auditory Sensation: step 5 | movement of basilar membrane causes vibration of hair cells against tectorial membrane. |
| Steps in Producing an Auditory Sensation: step 5 (continue) | whne hair cells are vibrated the stereocilia movement causes ion channels to open |
| Steps in Producing an Auditory Sensation: step 5 (continue) | cell is depoilarized which caueses release of neurotransmitter whoch stimulates the sensory neurons |
| Steps in Producing an Auditory Sensation: step 6 | information sent by nerve 8 to CNS |
| what are the four types of touch receptors | nociceptors, thermorecptors, chemorecptors, and mechanoreceptors |
| Nociceptors | (pain receptor) – found primarily in superficial areas |
| what are superifical areas nociceptors found | skin, joints, walls of vessels, and around bones |
| what are nociceptors | receptors are free nerve endings with large receptive fields |
| what are the (pains) nociceptors detect | extreme tempuratures, mechanical damage, and detect disolved chemicals |
| what are the two axons that exist with nociceptor receptors | type a (myelinated) and type c (unmyelinated |
| type a | (myelinated) – fast pain or “prickling pain” – caused by injection or cut; receptors provide localized/specific area where pain occurs |
| type c | slow pain or “burning/aching pain” – produced a while after initial injury; receptors only provide general area pain occurs at. |
| what does thermoreceptors consist of | free nerve endings |
| where are thermoreceptors located | dermis skin, skeletal muscle, liver, and hypothalamus |
| what type of receptors does thermorecptors have | cold receptors (4 times as many) and warm receptors |
| temperatures sensation uses what pathway | uses same pathway as pain sensations |
| what do chemorecptors consist of | free nerve endings |
| what do chemoreceptors respond to | only to chemical composition in surrounding fluid |
| what are the chemicals | O2, CO2, and pH |
| in chemoreceptors, where are the neurons located | in aortic arch and carotdi arteries |
| Mechanoreceptors | Are sensitive to stimuli that distort/change their cell membranes. |
| what are the three classes of mechanoreceptors | tactile receptorsm baroreceptors, and proprioceptors |
| Tactile receptors | provide touch, pressure, and vibration. Touch gives information about shape/texture |
| Baroreceptors | detect pressure changes in walls of blood vessels, urinary tract |
| Proprioceptors | monitor the location of joints and muscles. |
| what makes up the tactile receptors | free nerve endings, root hair plexes, tactile disc, tactile corpuscles, lamellated corpuscles, and ruffini corpuscles |
| what do the free nerve endings in tactile receptors do | touch and pressure to the epidermis |
| tactile receptors: root hair plexes | nerve endings wrap around hair roots so if hair is moved by breeze the root distorts the sensory dendrite which produces an action potential |
| tactile receptors: tactile disc | Merkel’s discs) – extremely sensitive with small receptive field; located in stratum germinativum. Fine touch and pressure to the Epidermis. Very sensitive |
| tactile receptors: Tactile corpuscles | (Meissner’s corpuscles) – Fine touch, pressure, and low frequency vibration to the Dermis. |
| tactile receptors: Lamellated corpuscles | (Pacinian corpuscles) – are sensitive to deep pressure and high frequency vibration to the Dermis |
| tactile receptors: | sensitive to pressure and distortion of skin, but located in dermis (deep). Dendrites are interconnected with collagen fibers. |
| Baroreceptors | detect pressure changes in walls of blood vessels, urinary tract |
| what makes up Baroreceptors | free nerve endings |
| Proprioceptors consits of | muscle spindles, golgi tendon organs, and free nerve endings |
| muscle spindles | turn muscles fibers on, tells muscle how many fibers to use |
| golgi tendon organs | turns muscle off |
| free nerve endings | pressure, tension and movements of joints |
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