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HRWP Test
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| State: Definition | A political entity with a defined territory, permanent population, government, and the capacity to enter into relations with other states under international law |
| State: Why it Matters? | States are the PRIMARY LEGAL ACTORS in the international human rights regime. Human rights obligations are addressed to states, not individuals or international organizations. |
| State: Example/Application | States ratify human rights treaties and are evaluated by UN treaty bodies for compliance with those treaties |
| Government: Definition | The political authorities that exercise power on behalf of a state at a given time. Governments may change, while the state itself usually persists |
| Government: Why it Matters? | Treaty obligations bind the state, not a particular government. New governments inherit the human rights commitments made by previous ones |
| Government: Example/Application | A newly elected government must still submit treaty reports required under treaties ratified by earlier administrations |
| UN Member State: Definition | A state that has formally joined the UNITED NATIONS and agreed to abide by its Charter |
| UN Member State: Why it Matters? | Only UN member states participate fully in UN human rights institutions and processes, including voting, treaty negotiations, and reviews |
| UN Member State: Example/Application | All UN member states undergo the Universal Periodic Review before the Human Rights Council |
| International Regime: Definition | A set of shared rules, norms, institutions, and decision-making procedures that structure how states behave in a particular issue area |
| International Regime: Why it Matters? | Human rights are governed by a REGIME, not a single law or institution. Understanding the regime helps explain how rules are created, interpreted, and contested |
| International Regime: Example/Application | The international human rights regime includes treaties, treaty bodies, reporting procedures, and advocacy networks |
| International Organization (IO): Definition | An institution created by states through a formal agreement to facilitate cooperation on shared problems. International organizations do not possess sovereignty of their own |
| International Organization (IO): Why it Matters? | International organizations provide the forums and administrative capacity through which international rules operate |
| International Organization (IO): Example/Application | The United Nations, established in 1945, is the central international organization supporting the global human rights regime |
| Treaty: Definition | A legally binding agreement between states governed by international law |
| Treaty: Why it Matters? | Treaties are the primary way human rights norms become LEGAL OBLIGATIONS for states |
| Treaty: Example/Application | When a state ratifies the ICCPR, it commits to protecting civil and political rights under international law |
| Treaty Body: Definition | A committee of independent experts established under a specific UN human rights treaty to monitor state compliance |
| Treaty Body: Why it Matters? | Treaty bodies are the main monitoring mechanism in the UN human rights regime, even though they LACK ENFORCEMENT POWER |
| Treaty Body: Example/Application | The Human Rights Committee reviews state reports and issues recommendations under the ICCPR |
| Nongovernmental Organization (NGO): Definition | A non-state, typically nonprofit actor independent of government that engages in advocacy, monitoring, research, or litigation |
| Nongovernmental Organization (NGO): Why it matters? | NGOs provide information, pressure governments, and activate accountability mechanisms within the human rights regime |
| Nongovernmental Organization (NGO): Example/Application | NGOs submit “shadow reports” to treaty bodies challenging states’ official accounts |
| United Nations (UN): Definition | An international organization (IO) established in 1945 to promote international peace, security, and cooperation, including the protection of human rights |
| United Nations (UN): Why it matters? | The UN provides the GLOBAL FRAMEWORK for defining human rights standards and monitoring state behavior |
| United Nations (UN): Example/Application | Most international human rights treaties were negotiated and adopted under UN auspices |
| International Human Rights | a set of global and regional rules, institutions, and practices designed to protect individuals from abuse by STATES |
| Domestic Civil Rights Law | enforced through national institutions, international human rights law operates across borders and relies heavily on international cooperation, monitoring, and political pressure |
| Regime | a particular government or type of political system but instead it refers to a set of internationally shared rules, norms, institutions, and procedures that structure how states behave in specific issue areas |
| International Human Rights Regime: Consists of | the legal standards to which states agree, institutions that monitor those standards, and regularized processes—such as reporting, review, and individual complaints—through which state compliance with those standards is assessed |
| Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) | Adopted in 1948, it is not LEGALLY BINDING |
| Why the UDHR is important | The UDHR provided the normative foundation for the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR), both of which followed in 1966. |
| The Covenants | elaborate the rights set forth in the UDHR, and they (unlike the UDHR) are legally binding on the states that have ratified them |
| Human Rights Governance in the UN: | organized around multiple, interconnected components rather than a single enforcement body |
| Human Rights Governance in the UN emphasizes that human rights work in the UN depends on | 1) political authorization by states; 2) administrative support by the UN civil service 3) specialized mechanisms that monitor, report, and interpret human rights standards |
| UN Human Rights Bodies | The Secretariat provides support to all other bodies in the program. Arrows indicate REPORTING ORDER of one body to another NOT COMMAND-AND-CONTROL |
| UN's TWO main political bodies | UN General Assembly (UNGA) and the Security Council |
| UN General Assembly (UNGA) and the Security Council are composed of | MEMBER STATES |
| UN General Assembly (UNGA) and the Security Council: why it is important | set broad priorities and mandates, create and authorize human rights institutions, and represent state interests and political bargaining |
| UN General Assembly (UNGA) and the Security Council DO NOT | investigate violations or directly enforce human rights law, but they provide the political legitimacy on which the rest of the system rests |
| The UN General Assembly (UNGA): Definition | the MAIN deliberative body of the UN and the only UN organ in which all member states are represented on an equal footing |
| The UN General Assembly (UNGA): Why it is important | serves as the closest thing the international system has to a global forum for political debate, norm-setting, and collective expression |
| Every UN member state | currently 193—has one vote, regardless of size, wealth, or power |
| The UN General Assembly (UNGA) | debates and adopts RESOLUTIONS on a wide range of global issues. It serves as a key site for norm creation and articulation, even though its resolutions are generally not legally binding. |
| The UN Security Council: Definition | UN body with primary responsibility for maintaining international peace and security |
| The UN Security Council | 15 members, five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States), each with veto power, and ten non-permanent members elected by the UNGA for two-year terms |
| Decisions on substantive matters | require nine affirmative votes and no veto from a permanent member |
| The UN Security Council CAN | adopt legally binding resolutions, authorize sanctions, establish peacekeeping missions, and, in rare cases, authorize the use of force, its decisions are binding on all UN member states |
| The UN Security Council INTERSECTS | with human rights when they intersect with threats to peace—such as genocide, mass atrocities, sexual violence in conflict, or widespread repression that fuels instability |
| Secretariat: Definition | administrative in nature and functions as the UN's civil service. For our purposes, its key components are the Secretary-General, the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), and human rights country and regional offices. |
| Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR): Definition | provides support, data collection, and technical assistance |
| Human Rights Council: Definition | charter-based body, meaning its authority comes from the UN Charter and UNGA, not from a specific human rights treaty |
| Human Rights Council: Why it Matters? | a political body comprised of states, not judges or independent experts. It debates human rights situations, adopts resolutions, and creates mandates—such as Special Rapporteurs and fact-finding missions—but it does not issue legally binding rulings |
| Universal Periodic Review (UPR): Human Rights Council | most distinctive tool which subjects every UN member state to regular peer review of its overall human rights record. This reflects the core logic of charter-based oversight: dialogue, public scrutiny, and political pressure, rather than adjudication |
| When States ratify treaties: | it agrees, under international law, to respect, protect, and fulfill the rights outlined in that treaty |
| Ratification | DOES NOT MEAN FULL COMPLIANCE |
| International Human Rights Regime: | devoted to monitoring, reviewing, and pressuring states, rather than direct enforcement |
| Treaty Body gets it authority from | its expertise and from the fact that state parties (states that have ratified the treaty) voluntarily accept its authority by the act of ratification. |
| State Parties | States that have ratified the treaty |
| UN Human Rights Regime THREE KEY POINTS | decentralized with responsibility for human rights spread across several institutions |
| UN Human Rights Regime THREE KEY POINTS | human rights enforcement is indirect in that the regime relies on reporting, review, expertise, and political pressure rather than coercion |
| UN Human Rights Regime THREE KEY POINTS | authority flows from different sources: political legitimacy for the UNGA and Human Rights Council, legal obligations for the treaty bodies, and institutional capacity for the Secretariat and OHCHR |
| International Human Rights Regime | influences domestic law, provides language for political contestation, and creates records that matter for diplomacy, aid, and reputation |
| Normative | SHOULD, what ought to be, also have theory |
| Normative Example | torture is always wrong: BIASED |
| Empirical | verifiable by observation or experience, trying to understand real world outcomes |
| Empirical Example: | international human rights operate as a standard of global legitimacy |
| LEGITIMACY=EMPIRICAL STATEMENT | purely objective |
| Theory | a way of looking at complex reality and deciding what matters, generates hypotheses of what we assume to happen -Structuring how we see the world |
| Human Rights | as a REGIME, not a world government |
| Domestic Law | courts + police + binding enforcement |
| International Human Rights Law | reporting + review + publicity + politics |
| Possession Paradox | the ability to claim rights when they are being denied |
| Natural Law | people have duties to one another and to God; rights were derived from the duties we owed one another under God |
| Natural Rights | derived from natural law, which in Christian civilization had to do with the moral character given by God to his creation |
| Positive Law (Legal Positivism) | domestic or international is held to account by a higher moral standard, law that has been codified |
| Positive Rights or Welfare Rights | entitlements, right to education, housing, things the government has to be involved with and spend money on |
| Negative Rights | civil rights (liberties) the government does not need to introduce; the government is stepping out and does not need to provide it |
| Rights | standards that make you entitled to something |
| Codified | written down, not legally enforceable |
| UDHR | came from the declaration that put them together, humanity, not by God |
| Human Rights System | based on the individual, NO AGREED SOURCE ON HOW WE JUSTIFIED RIGHTS |
| Rights work without law | and they work within a legal framework |
| Rhetoric | to change a status quo, reframing an issue -When a law is written down it gets authority from that |
| International Law | is SUBJECTIVE. The distinction between positive and negative rights is blurry |
| Amnesty International: Definition | -Helped invent modern human rights advocacy -Used moral claims grounded in univeral principles, carefully verified facts about abuses, and public pressure generated by transnational citizen action |
| Amnesty International | -helped create the political and moral conditions under which international human rights treaties, monitoring bodies, and reporting mechanisms became possible -Created to translate human rights principles into practical action |
| Amnesty International | -Relied on the ethical and legal reference points found in the UDHR -Operated as an outsider to international affairs, without the resources of states and without the authority of an intergovernmental organization |
| Universality | gives it legitimacy, and politics shapes what it can realistically achieve. |
| Universality: why it is important to the Human Rights Council | operates as the UN’s central political forum for human rights, where universality gives it legitimacy, and politics shapes what it can realistically achieve. |
| Member States | a country or state that belongs to a particular organization or confederation |
| International Bill of Human Rights: The UN Human Rights Regime 3 Core Texts | 1) Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 2) International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) 3) International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) |
| Why the International Bill of Rights is Important | The Covenants elaborate the rights set forth in the UDHR, and they (unlike the UDHR) are legally binding on the states that have ratified them |
| The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR): adopted by the UNGA in 1966 | international treaty that commits to its parties to respect and ensure the civil and political rights of individuals after WWII reflecting a global consensus on the need to protect individual tights against state abuses |
| International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR): adopted by the UNGA in 1988 | international multilateral treaty focusing on the protection of economic, social, and cultural rights, aiming to advance human welfare globally and is considered one of the most important documents in social and economic rights |
| Sovereignty | States have full control over what happens within their defined land or territory |
| International Norms | and institutions hold sway for states because of a sense of obligation, even without a central enforcement mechanism: states form a society in as far as they “conceive themselves to be bound by a common set of rules |
| Principled Norms | - pose significant challenges to other norms that have emerged as a result of key structuring principles of the international system - express obligations for states that reflect the rights due to human beings |
| Realism: Definition | Realism looks to power and the lack of central coordination in the international system as key determinants of state action. |
| Realist Theory | Realists characterize the absence of centralized supranational rule as anarchy, which is said to be at the root of competition for power among sovereign state |
| Regime Theory | -Sets of shared international rules, adopted to coordinate state activity, usually in the service of mutual interest -state interests remain the key determinants of state action and the key to enforcement once a regime is established |
| Regime Theory | one way for realism to account for the existence of shared rules. Regimes may be negotiated to accomplish mutually desired joint action; they are often promoted by a dominant state, or hegemon |
| Regime Theory | as joint interest-based cooperation does not account for the increase in attention directed at human rights issues in more recent decades |
| Regime Theory | modification of realism, DOESNT provide convincing explanation for sustained development of human rights norms in international system with hegemonic skepticism of multilateral norms/challenge international human rights norms pose to state sovereignty |
| Hegemon | The DOMINANT state |
| Decolonization | Membership of the UN grows due to the decolonization and fall of various empires, emphasizing the attention on racial discrimination |
| International Human Rights System of 1948 | -No treaty bodies in 1948 -Before the creation of an international human rights system, there was no real way to regulate states -IHR does not serve states well |
| Realist Theory Assumptions | -Sovereign states inhabit an anarchic environment -Norm of interference in other states domestic affairs prevail |
| Realist Theory Assumptions | -Calculations of national interest drive state action -Realist theory cannot explain this kind of system (theoretically states are giving up sovereignty) |
| Anarchy | -no central power to adjudicate -states motivated by power and their national interest |
| United States | has not ratified most of the UN treaties as a hegemonic power |
| Clark: Why does Regime Theory Fail? | -Recognizes states give something up to get something, human rights does not fit this dynamic -Regime Theory good for looking at trade and disarmament -Human rights theorists cannot explain regimes |
| Human Rights Activists | a relatively new term coined by the Amnesty International |
| United Nations | only exists at the states will |
| To explain human rights norm emergence | must look beyond states to NONSTATE ACTORS especially NGOs |
| How Norms Grow | Create expectations of what other people's behavior will be |
| 4 Phases of Norm Creation | 1)Fact-Finding 2)Consensus Building 3)Principled Norm Construction 4)Norm Application |
| Amnesty International | Initially looked after prisoners of conscience |
| Phase I: Fact Finding | The systematic collection, verification and preservation of information about violations Amnesty International in advocating for prisoners of conscience, they start to collect data on how people are treated (i.e. torture) |
| Phase I: Fact Finding | Knowing there is an issue helps facilitate the necessity of the creation of a new norm Makes violations visible |
| Phase II: Consensus Building | Process of interpreting facts as systematic violations that require a collective response Start talking about a problem to facilitate the need for a response Makes violations norm-relevant |
| Phase III: Principled Norm Construction | Translation of moral claims into formal standards, usually legal ones Formalizes expectations |
| Phase IIII: Norm Application | The use of newly articulated standards to evaluate real-world state behavior Does behavior fall short of the commitments within the treaty Tests and deepens authority |
| Human Rights Language | IS NOT LEGALLY ENFORCEABLE |
| Before International Human Rights Law: | states could ignore abuses, respond politically or militarily on an ad-hoc basis, issue nonbinding moral statements, or rely on domestic reform |
| Absolute Sovereignty: | how a state treated its own citizens was considered an internal matter beyond the legitimate concern of outsiders |
| Resolutions or Statements: | instruments expressed shared values and articulated aspirations but imposed no legal duties |
| Soft Law | NON-ENFORCEABLE |
| Declarations and Other | soft law |
| Hard Law Example | Treaties |
| Hard Law | ENFORCEABLE |
| Structural: | big, slow-moving processes |
| Simmon’s Argument: Three historical trends of that have supported (not caused) the legalization of international human rights: | 1) Democratization 2) Accountability in International Law 3) Growth in Transnational Civil Society - Ideas of human rights get codified into law |
| Democratization | the increasing number of states that we classify as democracies around the world |
| Procedural Democracy: | free and fair elections |
| Substantive Democracy: | protection of civil liberties, freedoms or rights |
| Why does democratization matter? | Democracy is presumed that the people have leverage to change things in the domestic system Democratic states are comfortable with liberties and rights (expecting states to not infringe on the rights of its constituents) |
| Why does democratization matter? | Can pressure governments to ratify international human rights laws Raising expectations for citizens, processes at the domestic level to put process on governments to draft, sign and ratify international treaties |
| Why does democratization matter? | Citizens can hold the governments accountable, and remove them if they are not satisfied |
| Treaties | agreements |
| Accountability in International Law | There is no world government to hold states accountable States can enter into agreements (treaties) because they will get something when they give something up (regime theory) |
| Accountability in International Law | Treaties = International Contracts (both give up something to get something) States create an accountability mechanism Simmons: accountability goes up over time |
| Quasi-Judicial Bodies | Something short of a court, no authority to issue an order that's enforceable, can make a decision to hold someone accountable, can issue a remedy |
| Judicial Bodies | courts |
| International Human Rights Treaties | do NOT have value for states |
| IGOs | states are the members |
| International Civil Society | Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) Have proliferated overtime Technological advancements is responsible for its proliferation Organizations can communicate information with each other quickly States are powerful domestically |
| International Human Rights: Pre-WWII | International Labor Organization (ILO), 1919 League of Nations, 1920-1933 Declaration of the Rights of the Child, 1923 Significance: idea present, institutions underdeveloped, state commitment weak |
| International Human Rights: WWII | H.G. Wells, Rights of Man, 1939 Hersch Lauterpacht, An International Bill of the Rights of Man, 1945 FDR’s Four Freedoms Speech, 1941 |
| International Human Rights: WWII Significance | Human rights consciousness spread, US & UK rhetorical use of idea, civil society takes seriously |
| International Human Rights: Post-WWII | Oppositional Forces: Political Obstacles in US & UK Supportive Forces: small states, anticolonial leaders, NGOs, revelations of Nazi atrocities |
| San Francisco Conference, 1945 | Drafting the UN Charter |
| Amnesty International | 1961 |
| Amnesty International | Helped invent modern human rights advocacy Used moral claims grounded in universal principles, carefully verified facts about abuses, and public pressure generated by transnational citizen action |
| Amnesty International | helped create the political and moral conditions under which international human rights treaties, monitoring bodies, and reporting mechanisms became possible Created to translate human rights principles into practical action |
| Amnesty International | Relied on the ethical and legal reference points found in the UDHR Operated as an outsider to international affairs, without the resources of states and without the authority of an intergovernmental organization |
| Nongovernmental Organization (NGO) | Gathering facts is an important technique NGOs have more expertise in their own subject areas than states or intergovernmental organizations |
| Nongovernmental Organization (NGO) | Contribute independent information and help to update state-sponsored reports that may have been written long before reporting date Can immediately contest “inaccurate or misleading statements which may be made by government representatives |
| Nongovernmental Organization (NGO) | NGOs responses to government statements based on independent investigation of facts are critical |
| What forms of influence did Amnesty rely on instead of power or coercion? | Forged techniques that publicized the gap between international human rights principles and practices |
| What forms of influence did Amnesty rely on instead of power or coercion? | Norms include core treaties, intergov monitoring inquiry mechanisms, official guidelines for implementation of human’s rights and an altered consensus on how much sovereign noninterference entitles states to ignore international criticism |
| Why was the UN initially unwilling or unable to enforce human rights? | AI requested little from UN delegations, and the UN wanted little from NGOs |
| Amnesty International: Impartiality Rule of Threes RULE ONE | It bases its actions on loyalty to the moral principles of human rights |
| Amnesty International: Impartiality Rule of Threes RULE TWO | It cultivates a position as a disinterested and autonomous “third party” actor in the international system |
| Amnesty International: Impartiality Rule of Threes RULE THREE | Deploys expertise and large amounts of specific information in the service in the service of general assertions about the need for norms |
| Amnesty International: Impartiality | Interpretive Capacity, Independence and Impartiality, Loyalty to Principle |
| Amnesty International: Impartiality | Strives for loyalty to the principles of human rights, for political impartiality and for knowledge of the facts of individual cases |
| Amnesty International: Impartiality | AI was an outsider to international affairs, lacking the resources and diplomatic standing of states, as well as size and authority, however limited, of an intergovernmental organization like United Nations |
| International Human Rights: | emerged because governments and international institutions were forced to confront moral claims they could no longer ignore |
| Prisoner of Conscience | any person who is physically restrained (by imprisonment or otherwise) from expressing any opinion which he honestly holds and which does not advocate or condone personal violence |
| Being Entrepreneurial: | key to making change in society |
| Amnesty International | CRITICIZING STATES PUBLIC MEMBERSHIP (anyone can pay dues and join) for legitimacy DID NOT take on writing letters for Nelson Mandela Formed due to concerns about political prisons |
| Amnesty International | NGO Advocacy Organization |
| Key Element of NGOs | Using information to call out states and force accountability Is crucial for information to be correct (or else you lose legitimacy) |
| Critiques of International Human Rights | Organizations may become conservative (procedure and policy) Strategic on what issues to care about |
| Power of International Human Rights | Disrupting the status quo Holding powerful people accountable Challenging the hierarchy |
| International Committee of Red Cross | Red Cross is more hesitant and monitoring domestic prisons under the Geneva Convention Needed access to make sure that prisoners are treated to standard |
| International Committee of Red Cross | Access, monitoring, hoping it would lead to better conditions, NOT naming and shaming (criticizing states) Maintaining confidence was crucial for getting access, does not embarrass states AI has PUBLIC MEMBERSHIP; the Red Cross does not |
| International Commission of Jurists | NO public membership Professionals, Lawyers, Jurors were members Focused on international law but not open for anyone to become a member Got money from the CIA (AI wants to avoid perceived conflict of interest) |
| Anti-Slavery International (Society) | Allowed for public membership DID NOT publicly criticize states |
| Three Keys to AI's influence | 1) loyalty to principle 2) independence and impartiality 3) interpretive capacity |
| Three Keys to AI's influence: Loyalty to Principle | Principle: speaking out on behalf of anyone researched and credibly identified as a prisoner of conscience and calling out any government in the world |
| Three Keys to AI's influence: Loyalty to Principle | By ensuring that it holds all regimes accountable, it avoids seeming to pander to communists. And avoids being seen as a tool to the west -especially during the Cold War |
| Three Keys to AI's influence: Independence and Impartiality | Researchers, not interested in politics Objective and Neutral Holding ALL accountable |
| Three Keys to AI's influence: interpretive capacity using the UDHR | Collecting information, articulating what the human rights standards are, and taking a specific case to articulate that what is happening is wrong Using specific scenarios to demonstrate how their treatment is violating some sort of principle |
| FIRST UN human rights treaty | The Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination 1965 |
| Clark’s Argument: | NGOs are responsible for the current state of International Human Rights AI is a consequential actor |
| NGOs need STATES to get treaties on human rights | making it UNLIKELY to have easy success for the creation of treaties |
| Four Phases of Norm Development | 1) Fact Finding 2) Consensus Building 3) Principled Norm Construction 4) Norm Application |
| Four Phases of Norm Development: Fact Finding | Essential in establishing the existence of torture in prison |
| Four Phases of Norm Development: Consensus Building | AI must work with states and parts of the UN The need to find state allies Most likely allies: Scandinavians |
| Four Phases of Norm Development: Principled Norm Construction | Figuring out what the language should be What are the norms? What should be in treaties? What will states agree to? |
| Four Phases of Norm Development: Norm Application | Norms articulated and codified, how to we make them matter? How do we create a system to apply the norms to states that are breaking it Concessions must be made to receive something against sovereign states |
| NGOs | often challenging governments |
| ECOSOC Resolution 1235 (1967) | Authorizing Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Discrimination and the Protection of Minorities to examine information relevant to gross violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms |
| Campaign for the Abolition of Torture | Intended to raise public awareness of torture and the need for stronger international norms to create renewed international awareness of torture, but also to revive, deepen, and extend the international normative consensus against it |
| Urgent Action Process | bulletins directly to participating AI members, who would immediately muster “cables and express letters from individual participants around the world on behalf of a person known by name who is at risk of being tortured |
| What is Missing: UDHR Article 5 | Missing preventative measures No true definition of what “torture” is Does not specify who may subject someone to torture (states) |
| What is Missing: ICCPR Article 7 | Does not specify who may subject someone to torture (states) |
| Norm Construction: UN’s Second Resolution on Torture | November 6th, 1974 General Assembly passed resolution (representation of all member states) AI need state allies to get resolutions on UN’s agenda |
| Crime Congress: | meeting of law enforcement officials to put the issue of human rights on the agenda |
| Crime Congress: | Important Forum to develop conversation by AI talking to law enforcement, and government officials who can deprive an individual of their liberty Expertise is essential in norm creation (less of a political issue, more of an operational issue) |
| Crime Congress: | Necessity of having laws on the books with no definition of torture Forum Selection: essential when trying to create change Choosing the crime congress is a strategic move |
| World Health Organization | Forum for talking about torture Non-politicized |
| Norm Construction: Declaration on Torture | Protection of all persons from being subjected to torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment Sweden (state), UN body (UNGA) and AI working together towards a common goal DEFINES torture |
| Norm Construction: Declaration on Torture | Torture: any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental, is internationally inflicted by or at the instigation of a public official (an agent is identified) |
| Norm Construction: Declaration on Torture | A Purpose is Defined: obtaining from him or a third person information or confession Torture is likely to happen when a state calls a “state of emergency” Reduces the scope of tactics for states to use: infringement of sovereignty? |
| Norm Construction: Declaration on Torture | Suggests every state should have legislation that addresses torture States must offer any person who has claims of torture a process to have cases impartially examined |
| Norm Construction: Declaration on Torture | Does not allow individuals to complain directly to the UN, but recognizes individuals by requiring the states create domestic avenues for reporting |
| Convention Against Torture: | 1984 - state parties should prevent in any territory under its jurisdiction other acts of cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment |
| Convention Against Torture: | Legally binding, states will be subject to review periodically - sets a standard regarding torture - States are measured by the language in the Convention Against Torture |
| Decolonization: | Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965) |
| Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965) | The covenants drafted in 1966 as a result UNGA convention aimed at eliminating racial discrimination following the infusion of various new member states in the United Nations after a period of decolonization |
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