Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
PSY 311 Ch. 3
Book notes
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Theory | is a set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior |
| Constructs | are hypothetical attributes or mechanisms that help explain and predict behavior in a theory -can be influenced by external stimuli and in turn influence external behaviors -Ex: external s. (rewards)--->construct (motivation)--->external b. (performance |
| Operational definition | is a procedure for indirectly measuring and defining a variable that cannot be observed or measured directly -specifies a measurement procedure for measuring an external, observable behavior -can also be used to define variable to manipulate |
| The primary limitation of an operational definition | is that there is not a one-to-one relationship between the variable that is being measured and the actual measurements produced by the operational definition |
| 2 general problems for indirect connection between variables and the measurement | 1. easy for operational definitions to leave out important components of a construct 2. often include extra components that are not part of the construct being measured |
| The best method of determining how a variable should be measured is to | consult with previous research involving the same variable |
| When you plan your own research, the best advice is to use the | conventional method of defining and measuring your variables |
| Positive relationship | 2 measurements change together in the same direction |
| Negative relationship | 2 measurements change in opposite directions |
| the consistence of a relationship is determined by computing a correlation between the 2 measurements | measuring the degree to which the data points form a straight line |
| 2 general criteria for evaluating the quality of any measurement procedure: | validity and reliability |
| The validity of a measurement procedure is the | degree to which the measurement process measures the variable that it claims to measure |
| 6 methods of validity | -Face validity -predictive v. -construct v. -convergent v. -divergent v. |
| Face Validity | simplest and least scientific definition, concerns the superficial appearance, or face value, based on subjective judgment and difficult to quantify |
| Concurrent Validity | demonstrated when scores obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from a more established measure of the same variable -Ex: height and weight |
| Predictive Validity | demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory |
| Construct validity | demonstrated when scores obtained from a measurement behave exactly the same at the variable itself. Based on many research studies and grows gradually as each new study contributes more evidence |
| Convergent Validity | demonstrated by a strong relationship between the scores obtained from 2 different methods of measuring the same construct |
| Divergent Validity | demonstrated by using 2 different methods to measure 2 different constructs. -Finally, there should be little or no relationship between the scores obtained for the 2 different constructs when they are measured by the same method |
| The reliability of a measurement procedure is the | stability or consistency of the measurement. If the same individuals are measured under the same conditions, a reliable measurement procedure produces identical measurements |
| The inconsistency in a measurement comes from Error. Common sources of error: | -observer error -environmental changes -participant changes: can change between measurements |
| Observer error | the individual who makes the measurements can introduce simple human error into the measurement process, especially when the measurement involves a degree of human judgment |
| Any measurement procedure involves an | element of error and the amount of error determines the reliability of measurements |
| When error is large, reliability is low and when the error is small | reliability is high |
| Types and Measures of Reliability | -Successive -Simultaneous -Internal Consistency |
| Successive Measurements, 2 types: | Test-retest reliability parallel-forms reliability |
| Test-retest reliability | established by comparing the scores obtained from 2 successive measurements of the same individuals and calculating a correlation between the 2 sets of scores |
| Parallel-forms reliability | established by comparing scores obtained by using 2 alternate versions of a measuring instrument to measure the same individual and calculating a correlation between the 2 sets of scores |
| Simultaneous Measurements | when measurements are obtained by direct observation of behaviors -Inter-rater reliability |
| Inter-rater reliability | the degree of agreement between 2 observers who simultaneously record measurements of a behavior |
| Internal Consistency | no single item or question is sufficient to provide a complete measure of the construct -Split-half reliability |
| Split-half reliability | obtained by splitting the items on a questionnaire or test in half, computing a separate score for each half, and then measuring the consistency between the 2 scores for a group of participants |
| Reliability is a | prerequisite for validity; a measurement procedure cannot be valid unless it is reliable |
| A measure cannot be valid unless it is | reliable, but a measure can be reliable without being valid |
| Accuracy | the degree to which a measure conforms to the established standard |
| Assuming that more eye contact is associated with higher self-esteem, what kind of validity is being demonstrated? | predictive |
| The process of measurement involves 2 components | 1. a set of categories 2. a procedure for assigning individuals to categories |
| Scales of measurement | nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio |
| Nominal | which the categories represent qualitative differences in the variable being measured, not related in a systemic way -Ex: psych, art, english |
| Ordinal | categories have different names and have an order -Ex: small, med., large |
| Interval | categories are organized sequentially and all categories are the same size. The zero point is arbitrary and does not indicate a total absence of the variable being measured -Ex: temp, 0 F degrees |
| Ratio | categories are sequentially organized, all categories are the same size, and the zero points is absolute or nonarbitrary and indicates a complete absence of the variable being measured |
| One factor that differentiates 4 types of measurement scales is the | ability to compare different measurements |
| A nominal scale can tell only | that a difference exist |
| Ordinal tells the | direction of the difference (more or less) |
| Interval, determine the | direction and magnitude of the difference |
| Ratio, allow to determine the | direction, magnitude, and ratio of the difference |
| What additional information is obtained by measuring on an interval scale compared to an ordinal scale? | the size of the differences |
| 3 modalities of measurement | self-report, physiological, and behavioral |
| Self-Report Measure | obtained by asking a participant to describe his or her own attitude, opinion, or behavior -most direct way to assess a construct -more face validity -on the negative side, very easy for participants to distort self-report measures |
| Physiological Measure | obtained by recording a physiological activity such as heart rate -extremely objective (advantage) -1 disadvantage: expensive or unavailable -Prescence of monitoring devices creates an unnatural situation that may cause them to react differently |
| Behavioral Measures | obtained by the direct observation of an individual's behavior -a behavior may only be temporary or situational indicator of an underlying construct |
| One method of obtaining a more complete measure of a construct is to | use 2 (or more) different procedures to measure the same variable |
| Advantage of multiple-measure technique is that it | provides more confidence in the validity of the measurements -can have some problems---> statistical analysis and interpretation of results, complex, 2 measures may not behave in the same way, lack of agreement, 1 measure more sensitive than the other |
| One method for limiting the problem associated with multiple measures is to | combine them into a single score for each individual |
| Range Effect | the clustering of scores at one end of a measurement scale. Ceiling effects and floor effects are types of range effects. -suggest a basic incompatibility between the measurement procedure and the individuals measured (too easy or too difficult) |
| Ceiling Effect | clustering of scores at the high end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of increases in value |
| Floor Effect | clustering of scores at the low end of a measurement scale, allowing little or no possibility of decreases in value |
| Artifact | an external factor that could influence or distort measures, threaten the validity of the measurement, as well as both internal and external validity |
| 2 artifacts, what are they: | Experimenter Bias and Reactivity |
| Experimenter Bias | occurs when the measurements obtained in a study are influenced by the experimenter's expectations or personal beliefs regarding the outcome of the study -single-blind research -double-blind research |
| Ways an experimenter can influence a participant's behavior | paralinguistic cues, kinesthetic cues (body posture or facial expressions), verbal reinforcement of expected responses, misjudgment of participants' responses, not recording responses accurately |
| Single-Blind research | if study is conducted by experimenter (assistant) who does not know the expected results, the experimenter should not be able to influence the participants |
| Double-Blind research | study in which both the researcher and the participants are unaware of the predicted outcome for any specific participant |
| Reactivity | occurs when participants modify their natural behavior in response to the fact that they are participating in a study or knowledge they are being measured -demand characteristics |
| Demand Characteristics | refer to any of the potential cues or features of a study that suggest to the participants what the purpose and hypothesis is and influence them to respond or behave in a certain way |
| Subject Rules | different ways that participants respond to experimental cues based on whatever they judge to be appropriate in the situation -4 subject roles |
| what are the four subject roles | 1. good subject 2. negativistic subject 3. apprehensive subject 4. faithful subject |
| Good Subject Role | a participant's tendency to respond in a way that is expected to corroborate the investigator's hypothesis |
| Negativistic Subject Role | a participant's tendency to respond in a way that is expected to refute the investigator's hypothesis |
| Apprehensive Subject Role | a participant's tendency to respond in a socially desirable fashion rather than truthfully |
| Faithful Subject Role | a participant's attempt to follow experimental instructions to letter and to avoid acting on the basis of any suspicious about the purpose of the experiment |
| Most direct strategy for limiting reactivity is to reassure participants that | their performance or responses are completely confidential and anonymous, and encourage them to be honest |
Created by:
user-1979983