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BIOCHEM 1
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define an essential nutrient: | nutrients that are required for the body to perform normal physiological functions |
| What is the chemical formula for water? | H2O |
| Why does water bead on wax paper? | Because water is hydrophilic, water loving, and wants to form bonds with itself more than with the waxy substance in question |
| How many hydrogen bonds can be made at one by one H2O molecule? | 4; so the Oxygen forms hydrogen bonds with 2 diff hydrogens (2 separate water molecules) and the 2 H's each form one bond with 2 separate water molecules |
| Water is an essential nutrient with what functions? | 1.Temperature regulation 2.Great solvent 3. maintaining pH |
| Why is water a bad buffer? | it can’t absorb added acid or base, so its pH changes easily. |
| What is the pH of water? | 7.4 |
| What pH is considered Acidotic? | below 7.35 |
| What pH is considered Alkylotic? | above 7.45 |
| What are hormones? | Chemical messengers that act at very low concentrations |
| Do hormones act on every cell? | ❌ No They only act on target cells that have the right receptor |
| What is paracrine action? | Hormones act on nearby cells |
| What is endocrine action? | Travel through the bloodstream |
| Where are alpha, beta, and delta cells found? | In the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas |
| What do alpha cells do? | Located on the outside of islets Secrete glucagon Suppress insulin |
| What do beta cells do? | Located in the center of islets Secrete insulin Suppress glucagon |
| What do delta cells do? | Secrete somatostatin Suppress BOTH insulin and glucagon |
| What happens in Type 1 diabetes? | Immune cells destroy beta cells, causing low insulin production |
| What is autocrine action? | Hormone acts on the same cell that produced it ➡️ Self-signaling |
| Give examples of autocrine signaling. | Positive feedback loops Negative feedback loops |
| What is the main macronutrient in cake? | Carbohydrates |
| Into what are carbohydrates digested? | Monosaccharides, mainly glucose |
| Where does carbohydrate digestion occur? | Mouth (salivary amylase) Small intestine (pancreatic enzymes + brush border enzymes) |
| What happens to glucose after digestion? | It is absorbed into the bloodstream from the small intestine |
| What hormone responds to increased blood glucose? | Insulin (released from pancreatic beta cells) |
| What does insulin do? | Promotes glucose uptake into cells (muscle, fat, liver) |
| What is the primary fate of glucose inside cells? | Used to make ATP (energy) |
| What metabolic pathway does glucose first enter? | Glycolysis |
| Where does glycolysis occur? | In the cytoplasm |
| What pathway produces most ATP from glucose? | Oxidative phosphorylation |
| Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur? | In the mitochondria |
| What cellular process uses 30–40% of daily energy? | Ion pumping, especially the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase |
| What does the Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase pump do? | Pumps 3 Na⁺ out Pumps 2 K⁺ in Uses 1 ATP |
| What happens to excess glucose if energy needs are met? | Stored as glycogen (liver & muscle) |
| What happens if glycogen stores are full? | Excess glucose is converted into fat |
| Are carbohydrates essential? Why or why not? | No Because the body can make glucose through gluconeogenesis |
| What is the main physiological role of carbohydrates? | Provide quick energy for ATP production, especially for the brain and red blood cells |
| Which nutrient class is the most energy-dense? | Lipids (9 kcal/g) |
| Why are lipids good for long-term energy storage? | They store a lot of energy in a small space and release it slowly |
| Why are lipids important for insulation? | Fat reduces heat loss and myelin insulates neurons, speeding nerve signals |
| Why does the brain contain a lot of fat? | Lipids provide electrical insulation for neurons and support signaling |
| What major cell structure is made of lipids? | Cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer) |
| What makes lipids chemically nonpolar? | They are mostly made of carbon and hydrogen |
| Why are some fatty acids essential? | The body cannot synthesize omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids |
| What nutrient class uniquely contains nitrogen | Proteins |
| Why is nitrogen important physiologically? | It allows the body to build enzymes, hormones, muscle, and tissue |
| What are the building blocks of proteins? | Amino acids |
| How many amino acids are essential? | 10 essential amino acids |
| What is the main role of enzymes? | They lower activation energy, allowing reactions to occur at body temperature |
| Why are enzymes necessary for life? | Without enzymes, reactions would require extreme heat or conditions incompatible with life |
| How do proteins function as hormones? | Many hormones are peptides, which are short chains of amino acids |
| Give examples of structural proteins in the body. | Actin, myosin, collagen |
| Why is water considered an essential nutrient? | It is the medium for all biochemical reactions and transport in the body |
| What is the main role of vitamins? | Act as coenzymes that help enzymes function properly |
| What physiological role do minerals play? | Structural support, electrical signaling, and oxygen transport |
| Which minerals are critical for nerve and muscle function? | Sodium, potassium, calcium |
| What are the three types of carbohydrates based on carbon number? | Triose 3C , pentose 5C , hexose 6C |
| Name three common hexose monosaccharides. | Glucose, fructose, galactose |
| What is the chemical formula for glucose, fructose, and galactose? | C₆H₁₂O₆ |
| What is a monosaccharide? | A single sugar molecule |
| What is a disaccharide? | Two monosaccharides linked together |
| What monosaccharides make up maltose? | Glucose + glucose |
| What monosaccharides make up sucrose? | Glucose + fructose |
| What monosaccharides make up lactose? | Glucose + galactose |
| Why are carbohydrates important and their functions? | i. Energy source ii. Cell membrane glycosylation iii. DNA synthesis (ribose) |
| What is a polysaccharide? | Many monosaccharides linked together |
| Give examples of polysaccharides. | Starch, glycogen, cellulose |
| What is starch made of? | 100% glucose |
| What type of linkages are found in starch? | α(1→4) and α(1→6) |
| How often does starch branch? | Every 20–24 glucose units |
| What polysaccharide do animals store glucose as? | Glycogen |
| Where is glycogen stored? | Skeletal muscle and liver |
| What linkages are found in glycogen? | α(1→4) and α(1→6) |
| How often does glycogen branch? | Every 12–14 glucose units |
| What is cellulose? | A structural polysaccharide in plants |
| What is the function of cellulose in plants? | Structural support (cell walls) |
| Can humans digest cellulose? why? | No; humans digest starch but not cellulose bc We have enzymes for α bonds, not β bonds |
| What linkage is found in cellulose? | β(1→4) |
| How are vitamins classified? | By solubility: water-soluble and fat-soluble |
| Which vitamins are water-soluble? | Vitamin B (B1–B12) and Vitamin C |
| What does “water-soluble” mean physiologically? | They dissolve in water and circulate freely in blood |
| Are water-soluble vitamins stored in the body and How are excess water-soluble vitamins removed from the body? | No, they are not stored well; urinary excretion |
| What is the main function of B vitamins? | Act as coenzymes in energy metabolism |
| What are the main functions of Vitamin C? | Antioxidant, immune support, collagen synthesis |
| Which vitamins are fat-soluble? | Vitamins A, D, E, and K |
| What does “fat-soluble” mean physiologically? | They dissolve in fat and are absorbed with lipids |
| Where are fat-soluble vitamins stored? | Liver and adipose tissue |
| What are the main functions of fat-soluble vitamins? | Vitamin A: Antioxidant Vitamin D: Calcium homeostasis Vitamin E: Antioxidant Vitamin K: Blood clotting |
| Define the x and y axis of an enzymatic graph: | x= substrate concentration y=rate of reaction |
| define the Vmax | The maximum velocity of a reaction |
| define km | the SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION at 1/2 vmax. so where 1/2 of the graph (horizontally) meets the line on the graph of said substrate vertically |
| What are the two types of substrate vs rate of reaction curves? | Michaelis-Menten and sigmoidal curve |
| What is the name of a rate vs substrate concentration curve that rises quickly and plateaus? | Michaelis–Menten curve |
| What type of enzyme follows Michaelis–Menten kinetics? | Simple (non-allosteric) enzymes |
| What is a sigmoidal curve? | An S-shaped rate vs substrate curve |
| What type of enzymes produce sigmoidal curves? | Allosteric enzymes |
| What causes the sigmoidal shape and What does cooperativity mean? | Cooperative binding between enzyme subunits; Binding of substrate to one subunit increases binding to others |
| What parameter replaces Km in sigmoidal enzymes? | K₀.₅ (substrate concentration at ½ Vmax) |
| Do sigmoidal enzymes shift left or right? | It depends on the effector |
| What does an allosteric activator do to a sigmoidal curve? | Shifts the curve LEFT; Lower K₀.₅ and higher substrate affinity |
| What does an allosteric inhibitor do to a sigmoidal curve? | Shifts the curve RIGHT; Higher K₀.₅ and lower substrate affinity |
Created by:
bythedeli