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SOC 350 Exam 1
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| hypothesis | a specific, testable prediction |
| hypothesis example | A researcher predicts that students who feel more socially connected report greater happiness. |
| random sampling | Everyone in a population has an equal chance of being selected. |
| random sampling example | randomly choosing BYU students to answer a survey on dating attitudes |
| correlational research | observes relationships between variables without manipulation |
| correlational research example | Surveying students to see if screen time is linked to loneliness. |
| experimental research | manipulates a variable to determine its effect on another |
| experimental research example | Testing whether sleep tracking improves grades among BYU students. |
| framing | The way information is presented can shape decisions. |
| framing example | Saying “90% of BYU students don’t vape” versus “10% do” influences perceptions. |
| What three things shape our social behavior? | beliefs, attitudes, relationships |
| What are the three branches of social psychology called? | Social thinking, social influence, social relations |
| What does correlation teach about cause and effect? | correlations shows that two variables are related but doesn't necessarily tell us that one variable causes another |
| spotlight effect | the tendency to greatly overestimate how much other people notice our appearance or actions |
| spotlight effect example | You spill chocolate milk on your shirt before a class in the JFSB and feel certain everyone on the quad is staring at the stain, when most never notice. |
| schema | mental templates about important aspects of yourself that guide what you notice, remember, and do |
| schema example | Because you see yourself as an athlete, your eyes jump first to the fitness-class flyers on the Wilkinson Center bulletin board. |
| social comparison | evaluating yourself by contrasting with others |
| social comparison example | checking the grade distribution right after an exam to see how you stack up against classmates |
| collectivism | cultural focus on group goals and interdependence |
| collectivism example | rearranging your weekend to help with a ward activity because community harmony feels more important than your solo hike |
| individualism | cultural focus on personal goals and uniqueness |
| individualism example | choosing to go to a social event alone, even though you live with several roommates who have talked about wanting to do more things with you |
| self-efficacy | belief in your capability to succeed at a specific task |
| self-efficacy example | You feel confident you can master R programming after acing past statistics labs. |
| self-serving bias | general tendency to see oneself favorably, crediting successes to self and failures to outside factors |
| self-serving bias example | “I aced the quiz because I studied hard. I bombed the next one because the questions were unfair.” |
| self-serving attributions | specific explanations that protect self-image by linking positive outcomes to internal causes and negatives to external causes |
| self-serving attributions example | attributing a successful ward activity to your natural leadership, but blaming low attendance during the next one on bad weather |
| self-handicapping | protecting your self-image with behaviors that can lead to potential future failure, providing an excuse for the failure |
| self-handicapping example | You’re terrified of social situations and being rejected, so at the party, you stay by the edge of the room and avoid eye contact with others. Later, you tell yourself it’s not your fault that no one reached out to you. |
| self-monitoring | being aware of how you present yourself in social situations and adjusting your behavior to create the desired impression in different social contexts |
| self-monitoring example | When you’re around your parents, you tend to be quieter and speak more formally, but with your friends, you use a lot more slang. |
| self-presentation | expressing yourself and behaving in ways to present a desired image to other people and to yourself |
| self-presentation example | You act and dress in a way that you think a good member of the Church should act and look, so that you are accepted in the Church community. |
| illusion of transparency | belief that our inner thoughts and emotions leak out so others can easily read them |
| illusion of transparency example | While giving a talk in your YSA ward, you feel terrified, assuming that everyone can see you shaking, yet friends later say you looked calm. |
| planning fallacy | the common habit of underestimating how long a task will take |
| planning fallacy example | promising your teammate you’ll finish the group-project slides in an hour, and still working past midnight |
| narcissism | inflated self-admiration coupled with low empathy |
| narcissism example | A teammate is good at what he does, he knows it, and then he constantly compares his skill with your technique and ability. |
| defensive pessimism | harnessing anxieties to anticipate problems and motivate effective coping |
| defensive pessimism example | You worry that you will use too many “ums” and get a mind block in your capstone presentation, so you run through it several times with a friend. |
| false consensus effect | overestimating how many others share your opinions or behaviors |
| false consensus effect example | assuming basically everyone at BYU prefers early-morning classes because you do |
| false uniqueness effect | underestimating how common your talents or good behaviors are |
| false uniqueness effect example | believing your habit of going to the temple once a week makes you unusually faithful among peers |
| What are the characteristics of collectivistic vs individualistic cultures? What are the names used to describe the two different cultures? | individualistic-focus on individual traits, goals, conformity. collectivistic- connections, shared group goals, social responsibility; Independent and Interdependent |
| How might self-esteem, social comparison, and self-serving bias interact to shape a person's perception of their own successes and failures? | high self-esteem, maintain positive self-image so when comparing self to others they feel better if out-performing others. self-serving bias protects that self-image by attesting success to own abilities and failures to external factors |
| priming | Subtle cues that influence behavior or thinking, often unconsciously. |
| priming example | A food advertisement appears on TV, showing a detailed picture of a hamburger. You automatically go to the kitchen and look for a snack. |
| automatic thinking | Thinking that is quick, effortless, and not consciously controlled. |
| automatic thinking example | When you wake up in the morning, you immediately pick up your phone and open the social media app. |
| controlled thinking | Thinking that is conscious, intentional, and effortful. |
| controlled thinking example | In a class discussion, you take time to reconsider your assumptions before responding to a controversial statement that another student shared. |
| overconfidence phenomenon | The tendency to be more confident than accurate in judgments. |
| overconfidence phenomenon example | A student is confident he can write a paper quickly, so he waits to write it until the day it’s due. He doesn’t get it done until later the next day, and he scores 50%. |
| confirmation bias | Tendency to seek out or remember information that supports existing beliefs. |
| confirmation bias example | A student feels cynical about the dating culture in Provo. When he thinks about the dates he’s been on, he tends to remember the most awkward or dramatic date stories. |
| heuristic | A mental shortcut used to make quick judgments. |
| representative heuristic | Judging something based on how much it resembles a typical case. |
| representative heuristic example | You are surprised to learn that the guy you met on campus is in the art department, not the business department, because he's wearing a suit and tie. |
| availability heuristic | Estimating likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind. |
| availability heuristic example | You are terrified that a shark will attack you at the beach since you saw a recent news article about an attack. |
| counterfactual thinking | Imagining alternative outcomes to events ("what might have been"). |
| counterfactual thinking example | After missing a job interview by 5 minutes, you think, “If I hadn’t stopped to grab lunch, I would’ve made it!” |
| illusory correlation | Perceiving a relationship where none exists. |
| illusory correlation example | Believing that every time you wear a blue shirt on exam day, you do better—when there’s no real pattern. |
| belief perseverance | Clinging to beliefs even after they’ve been discredited. |
| belief perseverance example | A student continues to believe a dating myth (e.g., “Most couples meet in freshman year”) despite data showing it’s rare. |
| misinformation effect | Memory is influenced by misleading information after an event. |
| misinformation effect example | A friend tells you that your ward has so many cliques. Thinking back on the first activity you went to, you only remember things that you think support your friend’s claim, even though everyone was actually welcoming and friendly. |
| attribution theory | Explains how we interpret causes of behavior—either internal traits or external situations. |
| attribution theory example | If a classmate is late, do you think they’re lazy (internal) or had a flat tire (external)? |
| fundamental attribution theory | Overemphasizing personal traits and underestimating the situation when explaining others’ behavior. |
| fundamental attribution theory example | Assuming a classmate failed a test because they’re lazy, not considering they were sick or dealing with family stress. |
| behavioral confirmation | Our expectations about someone lead them to behave in ways that confirm those expectations. |
| behavioral confirmation example | If you expect your lab partner to be disorganized and treat them like they are, they might become flustered and act disorganized. |
| What is the difference between dispositional and situational attribution? | dispositional attribution-internal, attribute behavior to person's character. situational attribution-attributing to external factor |
| What is it called when someone remembers a past event more positively than it actually occurred? | rosy retrospection |
| What is it called when a person gives up because they feel as if they feel as if there is no control over repeated bad events? | learned helplessness |
| cognitive dissonance | the discomfort we feel when our actions and beliefs don’t match |
| cognitive dissonance example | You feel frustrated and guilty when you don't stop to help someone since you value service. |
| insufficient justification | You do something inconsistent with your attitudes for little external reward, leading you to adjust your attitude to match. |
| insufficient justification example | Agreeing to volunteer at a ward activity with no reward, then convincing yourself it was actually fun. |
| self-perception theory | learning about your own attitudes by observing your behavior, especially when your feelings are unclear |
| self-perception theory example | You’re not sure you have a strong testimony of God, but you notice that you always choose to attend church and pray. |
| facial-feedback theory | Facial expressions can influence your emotions (smiling can make you feel happier). |
| facial-feedback theory example | You’re feeling down and sad when you look in the mirror, but you give yourself a quick smile which lifts your mood. |
| over-justification effect | External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation to do something you already enjoy. |
| over-justification effect example | A student who loves tutoring math starts getting paid for it and later feels less interested in volunteering for free. |
| What is the difference between implicit and explicit information? | implicit-unconscious and automatic. explicit-conscious and intentional, deliberate and controlled |
| What strategies might a person use to justify a decision or behavior that conflicts with their personal values or beliefs? | rationalize, justification, changing attitudes |
| When someone feels tension between their actions and beliefs, how might this tension affect their future choices or attitudes? | cognitive dissonance motivates them to change attitudes, justify actions, or avoid behaviors |
| natural selection | The process where traits that help survival and reproduction are more likely to be passed on. |
| natural selection example | Giraffes with longer necks survived better by reaching food and passed this trait to their offspring. |
| evolutionary psychology | The study of how natural selection shaped human behavior and mental processes over time. |
| evolutionary psychology example | exploring why students may be naturally protective of close friends or family in stressful situations |
| androgynous | having both traditionally masculine and feminine traits |
| androgynous example | a person who is assertive at work but also highly nurturing with friends |
| sex | The biological classification of people as male, female, or typically based on anatomy and chromosomes. |
| sex example | Someone who is biologically male typically has greater muscle mass than a female. |
| gender | The social and cultural roles, expectations, and identities associated with being male or female. |
| gender example | In some cultures, nurturing roles are more strongly associated with women, while leadership roles are associated with men. |
| norms | Social rules that define what is acceptable in a group or culture. |
| norms example | In the U.S., shaking hands when meeting someone is a common norm |
| personal space | the physical distance people prefer to maintain between themselves and others. Its size depends on our culture and familiarity with others |
| personal space example | Students often feel uncomfortable if someone sits right next to them in a mostly empty lecture hall. |
| How have gender roles changed over time? | have become more flexible and egalitarian |
| How do cultural norms shape the ways people behave, think, or interact in society? | shared values and traditions guide proper or accepted behavior |
| How can sex and gender influence the types of careers or roles people choose or are expected to perform? | biological sex predisposes certain traits but cultural expectations of gender have a strong influence on vocational interest |
Created by:
pworthen0723