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Chapter 6
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Minimal brain injury | A term used to describe a child who shows behavioral but not neurological signs of brain injury; the term is not as popular as it once was because of its lack of diagnostic utility |
| IQ achievement-discrepancy | Academic performance markedly lower than would be expected on the basis of a student's intellectual ability. |
| Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) | An adaptation of the MRI used to detect changes in the brain while it is still in an active state; unlike a PET scan, it does not involve using radioactive materials. |
| Functional magnetic resonance spectroscopy (fMRS) | An adaptation of the MRI used to detect changes in the brain while it is still in an active state; unlike a PET scan, it does not involve using radioactive materials. |
| Positron-emission tomography (PET) scan | A computerized method for measuring blood flow in the brain; during a cognitive task, a low amount of radioactive dye is injected in the brain; the dye collects in active neurons, indicating which areas of the brain are active. |
| Event-related potentials (ERP) | The brain's response resulting from a specific sensory, cognitive, or motor event. |
| Electroencephalography (EEG) | A method of measuring the electrical activity of the brain. |
| Left temporal lobe | An area on the left side of the brain; neuro-imaging studies indicate it is responsible for speech, language, and reading abilities and is dysfunctional in persons with reading disabilities. |
| Familiality studies | A method of determining the degree to which a given condition is inherited; looks at the prevalence of the condition in relatives of the person with the condition. |
| Heritability studies | A method of determining the degree to which a condition is inherited; a comparison of the prevalence of a condition in identical (i.e, monozygotic from the same egg) twins versus fraternal (i.e, dizygotic, from two eggs) twins. |
| Toxins | Poisons in the environment that can cause fetal malformations; can result in cognitive impairments. |
| Heterogeneity | Interindividual variation of disabilities in students with learning disabilities. |
| Phonological recoding | Unraveling the individual sounds of a word and then blending them together to say the word. |
| Dyslexia | A term for reading disabilities; used more often by those in the medical profession than those who are educators. |
| Dysgraphia | A specific learning disability in writing. |
| Syntax | The way words are joined together to structure meaningful sentences; grammar. |
| Semantics | The study of the meanings attached to words and sentences. |
| Phonology | The study of how individual sounds make up words. |
| Pragmatics | The study within psycholinguistics of how people use language in social situations; emphasizes the functional use of language rather than the mechanics. |
| Dyscalculia | Specific learning disabilities in mathematics. Not all math disabilities are alike; individuals may have difficulty with number sense, math computation, problem solving, etc. |
| Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) | A condition characterized by severe problems of inattention, hyperactivity, and/or impulsivity; often found in people with learning disabilities. |
| Working memory (WM) | The ability to remember information while also performing other cognitive operations. |
| Retrieval of information from long-term memory (RLTM) | In contrast, to short-term memory, which involves remembering something occurring just a few seconds ago, long-term memory involves remembering something longer ago; the length varies from one study to the next, from only about a minute to several decades |
| Executive functioning (EF) | The ability to regulate one's behavior through working memory, inner speech, control of emotions and arousal levels, and analysis of problems and communication of problem solutions to others; delayed or impaired with ADHD. |
| Self-regulation | Refers generally to a person's ability to regulate his or her own behavior; an area of difficulty for persons who have intellectual disabilities. |
| Metacognition | One's understanding of the strategies available for learning a task and the regulatory mechanisms needed to complete the task. |
| Comprehension monitoring | The ability to keep track of one's own comprehension of reading material and to make adjustments to comprehend better while reading; often deficient in students with learning disabilities. |
| Nonverbal learning disabilities | A term used to refer to individuals who have a cluster of disabilities in social interaction, math, visual-spatial tasks, and tactual tasks. |
| Locus of control | motivational term; how people explain their successes and failures; people with an internal locus believe that they are the reason for success or failure, whereas people with an external locus believe that outside forces influence how they perform. |
| Learned helplessness | A motivational term referring to a condition in which a person believes that no matter how hard he or she tries, failure will result. |
| Cognitive training | A group of training procedures designed to change thoughts or thought patterns. |
| Self-instruction | A type of cognitive training technique that requires individuals to talk aloud and then to themselves as they solve problems. |
| Self-monitoring | A type of cognitive training technique that requires individuals to keep track of their own behavior. |
| Scaffolded instruction | Teachers provide assistance to students when they are first learning tasks and then gradually reduce it so that eventually students do the tasks independently |
| Science of Reading | Knowledge of how to effectively teach reading based on 40 years of converging evidence from research; supports explicit and systematic teaching of phonological awareness, decoding, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. |
| Repeated readings | Students repeatedly (several times a week) read the same short passages aloud until they read at an appropriate pace with few or no errors. |
| Content enhancement | The modification of curriculum materials to make them more salient or prominent, e.g, graphic organizers and mnemonics. |
| Graphic organizers | A way of enhancing content with visual displays using lines, circles, and boxes to organize information. |
| Mnemonics | The use of memory-enhancing cues to help one remember something; techniques that aid in memory, such as using rhymes, songs, or visual images to remember information. |
| Direct Instruction (DI) | A method of teaching academics, especially reading and math; emphasizes drill and practice and immediate feedback; lessons are precisely sequenced, fast-paced, and well-rehearsed by the teacher. |
| Task analysis | The procedure of breaking down an academic task into its component parts for the purpose of instruction; a major feature of Direct Instruction. |
| Classwide peer tutoring (CPWT) | An instructional procedure in which all students in the class are involved in tutoring and being tutored by classmates on specific skills as directed by the teacher. |
| Peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS) | Based on research-proven, best practices in reading, such as phonological awareness, decoding, and comprehension strategies. |
| Baseline data point | Used in CBM; the beginning score gathered before an intervention begins, e.g, the number of correct words per minute that a student reads before receiving a fluency intervention. |
| Expected growth norms | Used in CBM; the rate at which the average student is expected to learn given typical instruction. |
| Aim line | Used in CBM; based on expected growth norms, a line drawn from the baseline data point to the anticipated end of instruction. |
| Informal reading inventory (IRI) | A method of assessing reading in which the teacher has the student read progressively more difficult series of word lists and passages; the teacher notes the difficulty level of the material read and the types of errors the student makes. |
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kileywray714