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Research Methods
A level Psychology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Aim | The researcher’s area of interest – what they are looking at (e.g. to investigate helping behaviour). |
| Bar chart | A graph that shows the data in the form of categories (e.g. behaviours observed) that the researcher wishes to compare. |
| Behavioural categories | Key behaviours or, collections of behaviour, that the researcher conducting the observation will pay attention to and record |
| Case study | In-depth investigation of a single person, group or event, where data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g. observations & interviews). |
| Closed questions | Questions where there are fixed choices of responses e.g. yes/no. They generate quantitative data |
| Co-variables | The variables investigated in a correlation |
| Concurrent validity | Comparing a new test with another test of the same thing to see if they produce similar results. If they do then the new test has concurrent validity |
| Confidentiality | Unless agreed beforehand, participants have the right to expect that all data collected during a research study will remain confidential and anonymous. |
| Confounding variable | An extraneous variable that varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of the change to the DV |
| Content analysis | Technique used to analyse qualitative data which involves coding the written data into categories – converting qualitative data into quantitative data. |
| Control group | A group that is treated normally and gives us a measure of how people behave when they are not exposed to the experimental treatment (e.g. allowed to sleep normally). |
| Controlled observation | An observation study where the researchers control some variables - often takes place in laboratory setting |
| Correlational analysis | A mathematical technique where the researcher looks to see whether scores for two covariables are related |
| Counterbalancing | A way of trying to control for order effects in a repeated measures design, e.g. half the participants do condition A followed by B and the other half do B followed by A |
| Covert observation | Also known as an undisclosed observation as the participants do not know their behaviour is being observed |
| Critical value | The value that a test statistic must reach in order for the hypothesis to be accepted. |
| Debriefing | After completing the research, the true aim is revealed to the participant. Aim of debriefing = to return the person to the state s/he was in before they took part. |
| Deception | Involves misleading participants about the purpose of s study. |
| Demand characteristics | Occur when participants try to make sense of the research situation they are in and try to guess the purpose of the research or try to present themselves in a good way. |
| Dependent variable | The variable that is measured to tell you the outcome. |
| Descriptive statistics | Analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way |
| Directional hypothesis | A one-tailed hypothesis that states the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. boys are more helpful than girls). |
| Dispersion measure | A dispersion measure shows how a set of data is spread out, examples are the range and the standard deviation |
| Double blind control | Participants are not told the true purpose of the research and the experimenter is also blind to at least some aspects of the research design. |
| Ecological validity | The extent to which the findings of a research study are able to be generalized to real-life settings |
| Ethical guidelines | These are provided by the BPS - they are the ‘rules’ by which all psychologists should operate, including those carrying out research. |
| Ethical issues | There are 3 main ethical issues that occur in psychological research – deception, lack of informed consent and lack of protection of participants. |
| Evaluation apprehension | Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they fear being judged by observers |
| Event sampling | A target behaviour is identified and the observer records it every time it occurs |
| Experimental group | The group that received the experimental treatment (e.g. sleep deprivation) |
| External validity | Whether it is possible to generalise the results beyond the experimental setting. |
| Extraneous variable | Variables that if not controlled may affect the DV and provide a false impression than an IV has produced changes when it hasn’t. |
| Face validity | Simple way of assessing whether a test measures what it claims to measure which is concerned with face value – e.g. does an IQ test look like it tests intelligence. |
| Field experiment | An experiment that takes place in a natural setting where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV |
| Histogram | A graph that is used for continuous data (e.g. test scores). There should be no space between the bars, because the data is continuous. |
| Hypothesis | This is a formal statement or prediction of what the researcher expects to find. It needs to be testable. |
| Independent groups design | An experimental design where each participants only takes part in one condition of the IV |
| Independent variable | The variable that the experimenter manipulates (changes). |
| Inferential statistics | Inferential statistics are ways of analyzing data using statistical tests that allow the researcher to make conclusions about whether a hypothesis was supported by the results. |
| Informed consent | Psychologists should ensure that all participants are helped to understand fully all aspects of the research before they agree (give consent) to take part |
| Inter-observer reliability | The extent to which two or more observers are observing and recording behaviour in the same way |
| Internal validity | In relation to experiments, whether the results were due to the manipulation of the IV rather than other factors such as extraneous variables or demand characteristics. |
| Interval level data | Data measured in fixed units with equal distance between points on the scale |
| Investigator effects | These result from the effects of a researcher’s behaviour and characteristics on an investigation. |
| Laboratory experiment | An experiment that takes place in a controlled environment where the experimenter manipulates the IV and measures the DV |
| Matched pairs design | An experimental design where pairs of participants are matched on important characteristics and one member allocated to each condition of the IV |
| Mean | Measure of central tendency calculated by adding all the scores in a set of data together and dividing by the total number of scores |
| Measures of central tendency | A measurement of data that indicates where the middle of the information lies e.g. mean, median or mode |
| Median | Measure of central tendency calculated by arranging scores in a set of data from lowest to highest and finding the middle score |
| Meta-analysis | A technique where rather than conducting new research with participants, the researchers examine the results of several studies that have already been conducted |
| Mode | Measure of central tendency which is the most frequently occurring score in a set of data |
| Natural experiment | An experiment where the change in the IV already exists rather than being manipulated by the experimenter |
| Naturalistic observation | An observation study conducted in the environment where the behaviour would normally occur |
| Negative correlation | A relationship exists between two covariables where as one increases, the other decreases |
| Nominal level data | Frequency count data that consists of the number of participants falling into categories. (e.g. 7 people passed their driving test first time, 6 didn’t). |
| Non-directional hypothesis | A two-tailed hypothesis that does not predict the direction of the difference or relationship (e.g. girls and boys are different in terms of helpfulness). |
| Normal distribution | An arrangement of a data that is symmetrical and forms a bell shaped pattern where the mean, median and mode all fall in the centre at the highest peak |
| Observed value | The value that you have obtained from conducting your statistical test |
| Observer bias | Occurs when the observers know the aims of the study study or the hypotheses and allow this knowledge to influence their observations |
| Open questions | Questions where there is no fixed response and participants can give any answer they like. They generate qualitative data. |
| Operationalising variables | This means clearly describing the variables (IV and DV) in terms of how they will be manipulated (IV) or measured (DV). |
| Opportunity sample | A sampling technique where participants are chosen because they are easily available |
| Order effects | Order effects can occur in a repeated measures design and refers to how the positioning of tasks influences the outcome e.g. practice effect or boredom effect on second task |
| Ordinal level data | Data that is capable of being out into rank order (e.g. places in a beauty contest, or ratings for attractiveness). |
| Overt observation | Also known as a disclosed observation as the participants given their permission for their behaviour to be observed |
| Participant observation | Observation study where the researcher actually joins the group or takes part in the situation they are observing. |
| Peer review | Before going to publication, a research report is sent other psychologists who are knowledgeable in the research topic for them to review the study, and check for any problems |
| Pilot study | A small scale study conducted to ensure the method will work according to plan. If it doesn’t then amendments can be made. |
| Positive correlation | A relationship exists between two covariables where as one increases, so does the other |
| Presumptive consent | Asking a group of people from the same target population as the sample whether they would agree to take part in such a study, if yes then presume the sample would |
| Primary data | Information that the researcher has collected him/herself for a specific purpose e.g. data from an experiment or observation |
| Prior general consent | Before participants are recruited they are asked whether they are prepared to take part in research where they might be deceived about the true purpose |
| Probability | How likely something is to happen – can be expressed as a number (0.5) or a percentage (50% change of tossing coin and getting a head) |
| Protection of participants | Participants should be protected from physical or mental health, including stress - risk of harm must be no greater than that to which they are exposed in everyday life |
| Qualitative data | Descriptive information that is expressed in words |
| Quantitative data | Information that can be measured and written down with numbers. |
| Quasi experiment | An experiment often conducted in controlled conditions where the IV simply exists so there can be no random allocation to the conditions |
| Questionnaire | A set of written questions that participants fill in themselves |
| Random sampling | A sampling technique where everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being selected |
| Randomisation | Refers to the practice of using chance methods (e.g. flipping a coin' to allocate participants to the conditions of an investigation |
| Range | The distance between the lowest and the highest value in a set of scores. |
| Range | A measure of dispersion which involves subtracting the lowest score from the highest score in a set of data |
| Reliability | Whether something is consistent. In the case of a study, whether it is replicable. |
| Repeated measures design | An experimental design where each participants takes part in both/all conditions of the IV |
| Representative sample | A sample that that closely matched the target population as a whole in terms of key variables and characteristics |
| Retrospective consent | Once the true nature of the research has been revealed, participants should be given the right to withdraw their data if they are not happy. |
| Right to withdraw | Participants should be aware that they can leave the study at any time, even if they have been paid to take part. |
| Sample | A group of people that are drawn from the target population to take part in a research investigation |
| Scattergram | Used to plot correlations where each pair of values is plotted against each other to see if there is a relationship between them. |
| Secondary data | Information that someone else has collected e.g. the work of other psychologists or government statistics |
| Semi-structured interview | Interview that has some pre-determined questions, but the interviewer can develop others in response to answers given by the participant |
| Sign test | A statistical test used to analyse the direction of differences of scores between the same or matched pairs of subjects under two experimental conditions |
| Significance | If the result of a statistical test is significant it is highly unlikely to have occurred by chance |
| Single-blind control | Participants are not told the true purpose of the research |
| Skewed distribution | An arrangement of data that is not symmetrical as data is clustered ro one end of the distribution |
| Social desirability bias | Participants’ behaviour is distorted as they modify this in order to be seen in a positive light. |
| Standard deviation | A measure of the average spread of scores around the mean. The greater the standard deviation the more spread out the scores are. . |
| Standardised instructions | The instructions given to each participant are kept identical – to help prevent experimenter bias. |
| Standardised procedures | In every step of the research all the participants are treated in exactly the same way and so all have the same experience. |
| Stratified sample | A sampling technique where groups of participants are selected in proportion to their frequency in the target population |
| Structured interview | Interview where the questions are fixed and the interviewer reads them out and records the responses |
| Structured observation | An observation study using predetermined coding scheme to record the participants' behaviour |
| Systematic sample | A sampling technique where every nth person in a list of the target population is selected |
| Target population | The group that the researchers draws the sample from and wants to be able to generalise the findings to |
| Temporal validity | Refers to how likely it is that the time period when a study was conducted has influenced the findings and whether they can be generalised to other periods in time |
| Test-retest reliability | Involves presenting the same participants with the same test or questionnaire on two separate occasions and seeing whether there is a positive correlation between the two |
| Thematic analysis | A method for analysing qualitative data which involves identifying, analysing and reporting patterns within the data |
| Time sampling | A way of sampling the behaviour that is being observed by recording what happens in a series of fixed time intervals. |
| Type 1 error | Is a false positive. It is where you accept the alternative/experimental hypothesis when it is false |
| Type 2 error | Is a false negative. It is where you accept the null hypothesis when it is false |
| Unstructured interview | Also know as a clinical interview, there are no fixed questions just general aims and it is more like a conversation |
| Unstructured observation | Observation where there is no checklist so every behaviour seen is written down in an much detail as possible |
| Validity | Whether something is true – measures what it sets out to measure. |
| Volunteer sample | A sampling technique where participants put themselves forward to take part in research, often by answering an advertisement |
Created by:
Sprockles