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A&P test 1
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anatomy | To cut up, study or arrangement and form of body parts. |
| Physiology | Study of functions of body |
| Levels of organization | Atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organism |
| Cardiovascular system | Heart, blood vessels, blood. Transports blood, which carries oxygen, CO2, nutrients, and waste. Heart pumps blood. |
| How many organ systems? | 11 |
| Integumentary System | Hair, skin, nails, body covering. Synthesis of Vitamin D. Site of Cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc. ) Receptors, sweat, and oil glands, like sebaceous glands. Protects from injury deeper. Waterproof to keep water in. |
| Skeletal System | Bones, cartilage, joints. Protects and supports body organs. Framework for muscles to use for movement. Forms blood cells, stores calcium and phosphate. |
| Portal of Entry | Cuts, burns, etc, to skin. |
| placid cell-stem cell | can become other cells, affected by sunlight, so stored deep in body |
| Muscular System | Cardio, Skeletal, and smooth types. Manipulate environment by contracting. Locomotion, facial expression, maintains posture. Produces heat, skeletal muscles best at this. |
| Energy equation | (Glucose) C6H12O6 + O2 into CO2 + H2O + energy, (ATP and Heat) |
| ATP | Adenosine Triphosphate. Body's energy. |
| Central Nervous System | Brain and Spinal Cord |
| Peripheral Nervous System | Receptors and nerves |
| Nervous System | Brain, sensory receptors, nerves, spinal cord. Fast acting control system, responds to internal and external stimuli by activating appropriate muscles and glands |
| Endocrine System | Pineal Gland, Pituitary Gland, Thyroid Gland, Thymus, Adrenal Glands, Pancreas, Ovaries and Testes. Secretes hormones that regulate growth, reproduction, metabolism. Interconnected by bloodstream. |
| Lymphatic System (Immunity) | Red Bone Marrow, Thymus, Lymphatic vessels, Thoracic duct, spleen, lymph nodes. Fluid called Lymph. Lack of this causes lymphodema. Houses white blood cells. Lipids can't get in otherwise, not water soluble. |
| 3 primary jobs of lymphatic system. | 3 primary jobs. Pick up leaked fluid from blood vessels. Put it back where it came from. Gather lipids from small intestine. |
| Respiratory System | Nasal Cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Lung, Bronchus. Keeps blood supplied with O2 and removes CO2. Occurs through simple squamous epithelium, walls of airsacs in lungs. |
| How respiratory system regulates PH | C6H12O6 + O2 into CO2 + H2O + energy. CO2 reacts with H2O into Carbonic Acid (H2CO3) makes blood acidic as H+ dissociates HCO3. Lungs get rid of H+ and CO2 to make it more alkaline. |
| ABG | Arterial Blood Gases, test to know PH levels. |
| Digestive System | Oral cavity, esophagus, liver, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus. Breaks down food into absorbable units to enter the bloodstream. Indigestible bits are eliminated as feces. Catabolism |
| Lactose intolerance | Pancreas stopping production of lactase. Glucose-Galactose have a bond that needs lactase to break down. People with intolerance can't make it anymore. |
| 4 biochemicals in body | 1. Carbs-Amylases 2. Proteins-pilotase 3. Lipids-hydrophobic-upase/lipase 4. Nucleic acid-nuclease |
| Urinary System | Kidney, ureters, urethra, urinary bladder. Eliminates Nitrogenous waste. Regulates water, electrolytes, and acid-base balance of blood. Does PH balance with respiratory system. |
| Male Reproductive System | Prostate Gland, Penis, testis, Ductus Deferens, scrotum. Homologous, can become testes or ovaries in womb. |
| Female Reproductive System | Mammary Glands, ovary, uterus, vagina, uterine tubes. Production of offspring. Ovaries produce eggs. Mammary glands produce milk. |
| Characteristics of life forms | Movement, responsiveness, growth, metabolism, reproduction, (both cells and offspring) |
| Metabolism types | Catabolism-ripping up carbs to use Anabolism-building blocks, muscle, fat, etc. |
| Homeostasis | The body uses systems to maintain itself at the same level. |
| Negative Feedback systems | Where the product shuts down future production of itself. (Cold, shivering, and hot, releasing sweat to cool. Stimulus to receptor, along afferent pathway to control center, along efferent pathway to effector, which responds back to homeostasis |
| Normal body temp | 37 degrees Celsius, 98.6 Fahrenheit |
| Positive Feedback Systems | Where products increase production of self. Blood clotting and labor pangs sending more oxytocin to produce more labor contractions until the baby is out. |
| Blood clotting (Positive Feedback Systems | If a cut occurs in a blood vessel, positive feedback cycle initiates. Positive Platelets in the negative lumen are attracted to the positive outside where the cut is. They stick and release chemicals, where the cycle happens again until the leak stops. |
| Anatomical Position | Standing up, arms at side, palms facing forward. Head forward and upright, feet shoulder width apart and facing forward, too. |
| superior | up |
| inferior | below |
| Ventral (anterior) | front |
| Dorsal (Posterior) | back |
| Medial | Toward midline of body |
| Lateral | Away from midline of body |
| Intermediate | Between midline and lateral |
| Proximal | Close to trunk |
| Distal | farther from trunk |
| superficial | on the surface (surface of digestive and respiratory tract counts, too. |
| Deep (internal) | Internal, away from surface |
| Plasma membrane | Phospholipid bilayer. Keeps Intracellular fluid in, and Extracellular fluid out. Phosphorus hydrophilic head, Lipid hydrophobic tail. |
| Channel Protein | In phospholipid bilayer to let water in and out, which can't get through the membrane. |
| Glycocalyx | Sugary layer around outside of cell, carbohydrates give place for protein and lipids to bond to outside the membrane. |
| Amphipathic | Polar and non-polar, phospholipid bilayer is Amphipathic. |
| Head of phospholipid | Glycerol and phosphate, loves water (Hydrophilic). |
| Tail of Phospholipid | Straight=saturated fatty acid. Bent=unsaturated fatty acid. Lipid. Hates water (hydrophobic) |
| Peripheral Protein | gum drop looking protein on inside of phospholipid bilayer |
| cholesterol does what for the membrane? | Cholesterol gives rigidity to the cell membrane. |
| Lipid Raft | Place of high cholesterol packed in to provide a rigid place to accept or expel particles. |
| integral membrane protein | Protein that goes from the inside to outside of the phospholipid bilayer. Doesn't have a hole in the center like a channel protein. |
| Tonicity | Relative concentration of solute to solvent on either side of a membrane. |
| Hypertonic | This is when there is more tonicity outside the cell. water flows out of the cell to make up the difference. |
| Isotonic | Concentration normal inside and outside the cell. Water flows in and out the cell at a normal rate. |
| Hypotonic | More tonicity inside the cells than outside, normally in the case of dehydration. This leads to water gushing into the cell from the outside, swelling the cells. This is dangerous in brains because the cells don't have space to expand past the skull. |
| Which will go through skin? Polar or nonpolar, charged, or not? | Nonpolar, non-charged particles will go through skin. Lipids go through skin. |
| Parasagittal plane | Sagittal planes that aren't on the midline (body facing forward) |
| Transverse plane | Body cut horizontally into top and bottom |
| Midsagittal plane (Median) | Runs top to bottom, divides body into left and right sides and as the name suggests, runs exactly down the midline. (body facing forward) |
| Frontal plane (Coronal) | Facing the body from the side. Body cut into front and back half vertically. |
| Oblique plane | Cut at an angle, any that isn't the other three listed. |
| Thoracic cavity holds: | Pleurals, superior mediastinum, pericardial cavity (within inferior mediastinum.) |
| Dorsal Cavity holds: | Cranial Cavity and vertebral cavity. |
| Ventral body cavity holds: | Thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities. |
| upper middle cavity of thoracic cavity | superior mediastinum |
| lower middle cavity of thoracic cavity | pericardial cavity |
| Cavities that hold lungs in thoracic cavity | Pleural cavities |
| Epithelium | On or upon, not in. It's a covering of continuous sheets of cells. |
| Lumen | Space in a tubular structure where blood, water, etc, would go. Normally in a vessel. |
| Cutaneous | skin |
| Mucus Membrane | Inside Mouth, esophagus, etc. |
| surface of epithelium | apical side |
| bottom of epithelium | basal side |
| space that gives structure to epithelium, and divides epithelium from tissue beneath | basement membrane |
| 1 layer epithelium | Simple |
| 2 or more layers epithelium | Stratified |
| Looks stratified, but not. | Pseudostratified |
| Squamous | flat like a pancake at surface |
| Cuboidal | Like a cube |
| Columnar | like a column |
| Transitional epithelium | where urine touches bladder wall. changes shape as it fills and empties (stretching) umbrella cells on surface. |
| How many cells are red blood cells (erythrocytes) | 24.9 trillion |
| How many cells are platelets (thrombocytes) | 1.4 trillion |
| How many other cells are in blood? | 3.3 trillion |
| Endoplasmic reticulum, smooth. | detoxification, lipid synthesis, storage of calcium ions Ca++ |
| What identifies blood types? | The glycocalyx. If the proteins are in the shape of an A, B, A and B, or none present, O |
| Rh factor | present (+) or absent (-) helps determine which of the 8 blood types. |
| Ribosomes | bond to rough endoplasmic reticulum, synthesize, saturate and transport proteins. |
| 80S and 70S ribosomes. What does S stand for | Svedburg |
| 80S vs 70S ribosomes | 80S is commonly found in the body. Antibiotics can't affect it. 70S is found in the Mitochondria of the cell and in parasites. Antibiotics in the right amount kill parasites. Too much, and they stop production in the Mitochondria. |
| movement across membranes slowly over time (free, no energy needed) | Diffusion, membrane semi-permeable. Small, non-polar particles slip through the membrane over time. |
| Facilitated Diffusion | Down the concentration gradient, higher to lower. Travels through channel proteins higher to lower, inside (cytoplasm) or outside cell (extracellular fluid) |
| Osmosis | Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane. Aquaporins! Protein channels specifically for water, since it can't get through the phospholipid bilayer. |
| Aquaporins | Aqua pour ins. Protein channel for water through membrane. |
| Active Transport | Sodium-Potassium pump. uses ATP to run, which then gives off a phosphate to become ADP. Sodium back to outside of cell, and potassium back to inside of cell |
| Salty bananas | Sodium-potassium pump to pump sodium out and potassium back in cell, through ATP |
| Endocytosis | Brings materials into the cell. |
| Phagocytosis | phag is to swallow. Gets large particles in by cell wall swallowing particle on outside of cell. This breaks off the membrane, becoming a vesicle, ultimately to be taken to the vacuole. |
| Pinocytosis | This is like phagocytosis, but the cell membrane swallows fluids (not particles) to bring them into the cell, breaking off to be vesicles. |
| Receptor-mediated endocytosis | surface of cell membrane has receptors looking for a ligand. When a ligand lands, it bonds with the receptor, triggering endocytosis. The bonded receptor and ligands inside break off to become a coated vesicle. |
| Exocytosis | Movement from inside the cell to outside the cell. Vesicles, carrying fluids or particles, move to surface of cell membrane. They attach and become once again part of the cell membrane, expelling the contents when snapping from round to flat on surface. |
| Cytoplasm | everything between nuclear membrane and plasma membrane in cells. Cell fluid |
| cytosol | gel-like fluid of cytoplasm |
| hydrolytic enzymes that break down macromolecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into smaller, absorbable units | Amylases, proteases, upases, nucleases. |
| lysing | chopping |
| Golgi Apparatus. | Stores and processes proteins and lipids. Produces lysosomes. |
| Lysosomes | Vesicles that contain hydrolytic enzymes for breaking down tissues. |
| Mitochondria | Powerhouse of the cell. Sites of cellular respiration. Gives us heat. Have their own DNA and ribosomes (70S) outer membrane, inner membrane, intermembrane space, cristae, and matrix, which holds the DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes. |
| Peroxisomes | Vesicles common to kidney and liver cells. Enzyme rich; oxidases, and catalysis. Bile acid synthesis, fatty acid hydrolysis. Detoxification of alcohol |
| antioxidants do what? | Keep O2 bonded to each other, if bonds fall apart to bond to other materials, we fall apart too. |
| Cytoskeleton | makes up the skeletal system of the cell. Add rigidity and aid in cell movement |
| Column of tubulin dimers | Dimer: set of two. sets of long rows making up a tube. |
| Actin subunit | Overall structure looks like DNA, one of the individual units that make up this. |
| Fibrous subunit | keratins coiled together. Looks like a tight twizzler candy or a rope. |
| Microtubule | polymers like a road system, motor molecules use these to get around to deliver materials. |
| Motor molecule | Travel on microtubules to bring materials where they need to go in the cell |
| actin building | pieces able to piece together into tubes and take apart. This creates ways for the cell to build road systems, move, etc. An offshoot of actin off a cell is called an actin process. |
| Leukocyte actin process | Actin building a tubule to push an arm like offshoot of cell membrane to look for bacteria. |
| cilia and flagella are: | both anatomically common to each other |
| cilia are in: | respiratory tract. They help move up mucus to be coughed out the mouth. Cells are stationary, but the cilia on top, like little hairs, are what moves. Also found in the ovary duct, to move eggs out. |
| flagella | means to whip, like flagellar tails in sperm, how the sperm swim. Move much like cilia, who they share a lot in common with, flagella and cilia that is |
| 9+2 microtubules | if you slice cilia or sperm's flagellar tails, you will find 9 outer microtubules in a circle, with two microtubules in the middle. |
| Inclusions | Stored or amassed materials. Melanocytes give melanin to inclusions in the basal keratinocytes when in sunlight often, causing the darkening of skin |
| Too little light | No vitamin D synthesis |
| Too much light | Cancer |
| Nucleus | Control center with DNA (Cookbook for proteins within nucleus. Transcription of chromatin DNA into mRNA here. Nucleolus within this makes ribosomes. |
| Parts of nucleus | Nucleolus, condensed chromatin around this. Nuclear envelope, nucleus as a whole, nuclear pores on outside of sphere, and cisternae on the endoplasmic reticulum. |
| How protein is made | DNA transcribes into mRNA in the nucleus. This then is translated into protein by the ribosome. |
| Where does the ribosome send the protein next? | The protein will be sent to the rough endoplasmic reticulum to be further processed. As it makes it's way through, it then will be sent to the Golgi apparatus, which will process it more, and send it out into the cell or outside the cell in Golgi vesicles |
| Golgi apparatus does what with the protein? | It could send proteins to the lysosomes, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum, etc |
| cell division | growth and replacement of somatic cells, and gamete production |
| gamete | sex cell, male or female. |
| Cell division, interphase | G1, growth. S, growth and DNA synthesis. G2, growth and final preparations for division. |
| G1 checkpoint | restriction point in the G1 growth of cell division. |
| G2 checkpoint | In between the end of interphase and the beginning of Mitotic phase. |
| Mitotic phase | Mitosis: prophase, metaphase, anaphase. Followed by cytokinesis, which can start happening even in anaphase, but definitely by telophase |
| centromere | ball of protein in chromosome |
| chromatid | single side of chromosomes, looks like a single gummy worm. |
| Karyotype | Genetic table of genetic chromosomes of an individual. |
| male chromosomes | 22 chromosomes, and an x and y chromosome |
| female chromosomes | 22 chromosomes, and two X chromosomes |
| 21 chromosomes= | down syndrome, triploid condition. |
| gene | characteristic |
| allele | variations of the same gene |
| Ploidy | The number of each kind of chromosome, lumping together same kinds of chromosomes, 3 of this kind, 2 of this, 5 of that, etc. |
| Prefixes | Diploid-2 of the same kind, tetraploid, 4 of the same kind, etc. |
| one ploid | Haploid. |
| Interphase; G1 | Doubling of organelles, make two of everything so it can split into two cells. |
| Interphase; S | DNA synthesis. |
| chromosomes are counted by: | Centrosomes, not chromatids |
| synthesis definition | process of how simpler components combine to create more complex ones. |
| Interphase; G2 | protein synthesis, growth and final preparations for division. |
| Mitosis | Nuclear division resulting in two nuclei that are identical in chromosome number to the original. Mitosis is only talking about the nucleus. |
| Cytokinesis | division of the cytoplasm |
| 1st stage of mitosis; Prophase | Centrosomes go to poles of nucleus, extend microtubules to form mitotic spindle. each chromosome has two chromatids. Nuclear envelope breaks down, and spindle fibers attach to centrosomes of chromosomes |
| 2nd stage of mitosis; Metaphase | Chromosomes line up in middle, like a plate, because of even tugging of centrosomes at each side. |
| 3rd stage of mitosis; Anaphase | sister chromatids separate, making two daughter chromatids. Temporarily a tetraploid till split completes. (46 x 2=96 total) poles lengthen, getting ready to cleave cell apart |
| 4th stage of mitosis; Telophase | Two new nuclei envelopes form, two new daughter cells emerge. |
| Cell division for gamete production; G1, S, G2 | Interphase like in somatic cells |
| Cell division for gamete production; Meiosis | Only division in nucleus, nucleus from 1-4, except in female, 2 or 3 thrown out, and all cytoplasm kept in 4th to keep. Division of diploid. occurs in gonads. |
| Cell division for gamete production; Division of diploid male | one cell with 46 chromosomes, divided into 4 cells with 23 chromosomes. |
| Cell division for gamete production; Division of diploid female | one cell with 46, into one cell with 23 chromosomes, and 2 or three empty throwaways. |
| Genetic diversity | Keeps pathogens from knocking out all of mankind at once. |
| Male spermatogenesis | result: 4 sperm cells |
| Female oogenesis | result: 1 egg, 2-3 polar bodies. unequal cytokinesis. Meiosis 2 only completed if sperm penetrates. |
| Stages of Meiosis 1; Prophase 1 | Spindle fibers growing to poles again, nuclear membrane fragments. Forms tetrad. Nucleoprotein ladders bind the two into the tetrads. |
| Stages of Meiosis 1; Metaphase 1 | Tetrads align randomly at the equator together. Independent assortment of pairs, which makes more diversity. |
| Number of possible combinations 2Ni, where N=Haploid # of chromosomes | In humans, 2^23 power= 8,388,608 possibilities |
| Stages of Meiosis 1; Anaphase 1 | centromeres do not separate during anaphase I of meiosis, so the sister chromatids (dyads) remain firmly attached. However, the homologous chromosomes do separate from each other and the dyads move toward opposite poles of the cell. |
| Stages of Meiosis 1; Telophase 1 | nuclear envelopes re-form, spindle breaks down, and chromatin reappears. 2 daughter cells (now haploid) enter a second interphase-like period, called interkinesis, before meiosis II occurs. No second replication of DNA before meiosis II. |
| Stages of Meiosis 2; Prophase 2 | Nuclear membrane and nuclei break up while spindle assembly reappears. |
| Stages of Meiosis 2; Metaphase 2 | Chromosomes line up at the equator (plate) of the cell's center. |
| Stages of Meiosis 2; Anaphase 2 | Spindles draw back, separating sister chromatids to opposite ends, becoming full chromosomes. Referred to as daughter chromosomes. |
| Stages of Meiosis 2; Telophase 2 | Distinct nuclei form at the opposite poles. Cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm and the formation of two distinct cells) occurs. At the end of meiosis II, four daughter cells are produced. Each cell has one-half the number of chromosomes as the orig |
| Differentiation | cell development, without SRY gene, all of us would be born female. |
| Totipotent embryonic stem cell | generic to specialized |
| Pluripotent Embryonic Stem cells | comes from totipotent embryonic stem cells. Can be endoderm line, mesoderm line, or ectoderm line. |
| Multipotent Stem Cells | comes from pluripotent embryonic stem cells. |
| Endoderm line cells | Become lung, or pancreas |
| Mesoderm line cells | Become heart muscle, red blood cell |
| Ectoderm line cells | Become skin, neuron |
| Gene activation or repression | over 200 cell types in the DNA cookbook, the totipotent embryonic stem cell can become any of them. |
| Apoptosis | Intentional cell suicide |
| Active Transport | Sodium-potassium pump, can be more than just sodium and potassium. Example, thyroid cells concentrate iodine levels 30 times higher inside the cell than outside. This needs active transport to keep levels higher. |
| Possible controls for regulation of cell cycling; | Telomere clock, cell surface/volume ratio, hormones, space availability. |
| Telomere clock | Telomeres at ends of chromatin. As cells divide, telomeres shorten, and eventually cell division stops. |
| Cell surface/volume ratio | oxygen or CO2, etc, has too far to go in larger cells, so smaller cells are more efficient. Bigger cell=more chance of dividing. |
| hormones as a regulatory system of cells | puberty, etc |
| Space availability as a regulatory system of cells | Brain cells and neurons slow production, once the skull starts filling in |
| Mesentary | Web of tissues that holds organs in place |
| Anabolism | Up, building up larger more complex molecules from smaller ones, building blocks |
| Catabolism | Down, breaking down bigger complex molecules into smaller units to build with. |
| Cellular Respiration | In mitochondria, where C6H12O6 and O2 are converted into CO2, H2O, and ATP and heat |
| True or false, does the pain you feel while holding your breath for a long time occur as a result of your body's need for more oxygen? | False. The pain you feel is not from lack of O2, but rather rising levels of CO2 in your blood, making it acidic. Your body is telling you levels are too high. |
| Which organ system is fastest at cellular respiration? | Nervous system |
| True or false, without a specific gene that tells a fetus to differentiate, we would all be born female? | True, the SRY gene tells the fetus to make a testis. |
| Diaphragm | membrane between thoracic and abdominal cavities. |
| interkinesis | second interphase between meiosis 1 and meiosis 2 |
| nucleoprotein ladders | These form between chromosomes in prophase 1. |
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