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PRAXIS TESOL
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Phonetics | The study of the production of sounds in speech |
| Phonology | The sounds and patterns of particular languages |
| Intonation | The way a voice rises or falls in speech |
| Stress | The emphasis based on syllables or words |
| Morpheme | The smallest linguistic unit of meaning |
| Morphology | The study of how morphemes are combined to make words |
| Syntax | How words are constructed into phrases or sentences |
| Semantics | The study of meaning in language |
| Transcription | A way to visually represent sounds |
| Voiced sounds | Made by vibrating the vocal chords |
| Voiceless sounds | Made without vibrating the vocal chords |
| Place of articulation | The point where two speech organs come together to make a sound (ex top and bottom lips coming to gather to make the m sound) |
| Bilabial consonants | Made by touching your top and bottom lip together |
| Nasalization | Sounds made by air traveling through the nose |
| Aspiration | Sounds made with a burst of air out of the mouth (ex the h sound in hope) |
| Connected speech | When speakers simplify sounds and run words together |
| Assimilation | Occurs when speech sounds change due to the influence of nearby sounds |
| Dipthong | The sound made when one vowel sound blends into another sound in one syllable (ex ou in loud) |
| Consonant clusters | Groups of 2 or more consonants like pl, nt, and sp |
| Epenthesis | Inserting an additional sound into the middle of a word ex puh-lace for place |
| Voicing | When a voiceless consonant changes to a voiced consonant because of nearby sounds (ex the f in reefs is unvoiced so the s is too, but the v in leaves is voiced so the s is too |
| Elision | When sounds are omitted from the pronunciation of a word because the omission makes the words easier to use in every day speech (ex Mac n cheese) |
| Metathesis | When sounds are rearranged in a word (ex iern for iron) |
| Vowel reduction | The shortening or diminishing of a vowel sound (ex replacing a vowel with a schwa sound like in amazing) occurs with many unstressed vowels in english |
| Bound morpheme | Must be attached to a word to have meaning (ex er or ing) |
| Free morpheme | Can stand on its own as a word |
| Stem/root | A base word, often a free morpheme, to which other morphemes can be added |
| Affix | Either a prefix or suffix. A bound morpheme that can be added to a root word to change its meaning, grammatical function, tense, case, or gender |
| Inflectional morphemes | Bound morphemes that don’t greatly alter the meaning or part of speech of a word |
| Derivational morphemes | Create a word that has a new meaning or part of speech |
| Transformational grammar | Noam Chomsky. Turned the focus of grammar away from semiotics and meaning, toward a system of rules that dictate proper sentence construction |
| Connotation | The emotional association of a word |
| Denotation | A words actual dictionary definition |
| Idiom | A group of words whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of the individual words in the group; put together the words have a new meaning |
| Interference/ negative transfer | When language learners incorrectly apply the rules of their native language to the rules of the language they are learning |
| Pragmatics | The meaning of words in context |
| Utterances | Speech acts of one or more words that contain a single idea and are surrounded on both sides by silence |
| Sociolinguistics | The study of language and its relation to society and culture |
| Language policy | The set of actions a government takes to regulate what languages are spoken in a given country |
| Regional dialects | Language variations that are common to people in a certain region |
| Social dialect | Language variations common to the people in a certain social group |
| Pidgin | A grammatically simplified mode of communicating that uses elements of both languages. Allows speakers of different languages to communicate |
| Creole | A pidgin that people have begun speaking as a first language |
| World englishes | Dialects of English spoken all over the world due to regions accents |
| Communicative competence | Being able to speak a language both appropriately in a social context as well as correctly in terms of rules and structures |
| Linguistic competence | One’s knowledge of the linguistic components of a language such as morphology, syntax, and semantics |
| Sociolinguistic competence | Using the language in socially appropriate ways and understanding register |
| Register | Degrees of formality, differences in setting, considerations of context, etc |
| Discourse competence | The ability to effectively arrange smaller units of languages like phrases and sentences into cohesive works like letters, speeches, conversations, and articles |
| Strategic competence | The ability to recognize and repair breakdowns in communication through strategic planning and or redirecting |
| Basic interpersonal communication skills (BICS) | Social skills students use in everyday life when socializing on the playground, in the cafeteria, and outside of school. May be developed quickly because they aren’t context driven or reliant on formalized rules |
| Cognitive academic language proficiency | Language needed for academic work and study. Includes understanding of both the formal language of academics and the vocabulary of critical thinking and problem solving: compare, classify, synthesize, evaluate, and infer. Less context, high cognition |
| Proper noun | The name of a specific person place or thing |
| Improper noun | General person place or thing or idea |
| Compound noun | Noun formed from more than one person place or thing |
| Antecedent | The noun a pronoun replaces |
| Subject pronouns | I you he she it we they |
| Object pronouns | Me you him her it us them |
| Possessive pronouns | Mine yours his hers its ours theirs |
| Relative pronouns | Begin dependent clauses (ex. Who which that whose whom) |
| Interrogative pronouns | Begin questions and request information about people places things ides location time means and purposes (ex who whom what where when which why how) |
| Demonstrative pronouns | Point out or draw attention to someone or something can also indicate proximity or distance (ex this that these those) |
| Indefinite pronouns | replace nouns to avoid unnecessary repetition (ex. another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, neither, no one, nobody, nothing, one, somebody, someone,something, both, few, several, many, some, any, none, all, most) |
| helping verbs | used to indicate tense (ex. have, had, will, was, am, been) |
| linking verbs | join the subject of a sentence to the subject complement, which follows the verb and provides more information about the subject. Ex. In "The dog is cute" Dog is the subject, is is the linking verb, and cute is the subject complement |
| conjugation | the process of changing the spelling of a word and or adding helping verbs. Verbs can be conjugated to indicate tense, person, and number. Subjects and verbs must agree. |
| Infinitive | a verb that has not been conjugated and begins with to (ex. to swim) |
| Active voice | the subject of the sentence performs the main action of the sentence ex. Alexis played tennis |
| passive voice | the subject of the sentence is receiving the action of the main verb ex. tennis was played. The verb is emphasized, not the subject. Normally used when subject is unknown or unimportant. |
| direct object | noun that receives the action of the verb |
| transitive verbs | require a direct object Ex. the transitive verb throw has a direct object (ball) in this sentence "The pitcher will throw the ball" |
| intransitive verbs | do not require a direct object Ex. run, swim, jump |
| Indirect object | receives the direct object of the sentence Ex. Antoine is the indirect object in the sentence "The pitcher will throw Antoine the ball" |
| comparative adjectives | used to compare 2 things and uses -er |
| superlative adjectives | used to compare 3 things and uses -est |
| adjective clause | a clause that describes something ex. which is green and well worn |
| adverb clause | a dependent clause that modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb in the main or independent clause of a sentence Ex. Because it was raining, I decided to take my umbrella. "Because it was raining" modifies the verb "decided" |
| prepositions | set up relationships in time or space within a sentence. Remember the airplane flew ____ the cloud |
| prepositional phrase | the preposition and the object of the preposition. Ex. into the sea |
| conjunctions | short words that connect words, phrases, or sentences Ex. and or but so for nor yet |
| correlative conjunctions | join together words, phrases, or independent clauses. Ex. whether/or, either/or, neither/nor, both/and, not only/ but also. Used together with the conjunction it shares a slash with |
| subordinating conjunctions | join dependent clauses to the independent clauses to which they are related ex. after, as soon as, as though, because, although, in order to, so that, as, than |
| interjections | words that express emotion such as oh and wow. Often used on their own and are followed by an exclamation point, but can also be part of a sentence |
| determiners | a, an, the. Used before nouns |
| indefinite articles | a, an, do not indicate a specific noun |
| definite articles | the, does indicate a specific noun |
| count nouns | nouns that can be put into plural form ex. two books, seven sins |
| noncount nouns | nouns that can't be counted and can't be changed into plural form ex. money greed furniture |
| person | the point of view of the sentence |
| simple present | verb tense used to talk about habits and unchanging general truths and facts. two forms, singular and plural |
| simple past | used to talk about things that happened began, and ended at a certain point in the past |
| simple future tense | used to talk about events in the future, uses the helping verbs will and the simple form of a verb or a be verb + going to + the simple form of the verb. Ex. will run or am going to run |
| present perfect | used to talk about events that happened in the past at an unspecified time or things that began in the past and continue in the present. Uses the helping verbs has/have + the past participle form of the verb. Ex. We have traveled to Canada several times |
| past perfect | used to talk about an event in the past that has happened before another event in the past. uses helping verb had+ the past participle of the verb. Ex. we had finished dinner when she brought out the cake. |
| future perfect | used to talk about something in the future that will be completed by a certain time or before another event. Uses helping verbs will have + past participle form of the verb Ex. She will have baked the cake before dinner |
| subject | what the sentence is about. Includes noun performing the main action of the sentence and the noun's modifiers |
| predicate | describes what the action is doing or being . Contains the verb and any modifiers or objects that accompany it |
| phrase | group of words that communicates a partial idea and lacks either a subject or a predicate |
| verb phrase | composed of a main verb along with its helping verbs ex. the chef would have created another dish, but the staff protested. "would have created" is the verb phrase |
| noun phrase | consists of a noun and its modifiers ex. The big, red, barn rests beside the vacant chicken house. "the vacant chicken house" is the noun phrase |
| appositive phrase | a particular type of noun phrase that renames the word or group of words that precedes it. usually follow the noun they describe and are set apart by commas. Ex. My dad, a clockmaker, loved antiques. "A clockmaker" is the appositive phrase |
| verbal phrases | begin with a word that would normally act as a verb but instead fills another role within the sentence. Can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. |
| Gerund phrases | begin with gerunds, which are verbs that end in -ing and act as nouns. Ex. "Writing numerous Christmas cards" is the gerund phrase in "Writing numerous Christmas cards occupies her aunt's time each year" |
| participial phrase | a verbal phrase that acts as an adjective. Start with either present participles (which end in -ing) or past participles (which normally end in -ed). Participial phrases can be taken from the sentence and the sentence will make sense. |
| infinitive phrase | a verbal phrase that may act as a noun, adjective, or adverb. begin with the word "to" followed by the simple form of the verb Ex. "To visit Europe" in "To visit Europe had always been her dream." |
| Dependent clauses | are begun with a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun/adjective |
| complex sentence | 1 independent clause and one or more dependent clauses |
| compound- complex sentence | two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clause |
| commas | used in lists, to join independent clauses, used after introductory words or phrases, used to set apart extra clauses and phrases used before quotations |
| apostrophes | used to show possession and form contractions, |
| colons | used to let the reader know that a list or explanation is coming in the sentence |
| em dash- | used to indicate a range of dates |
| em dash -- | used to indicate an abrupt break in a sentence and emphasize the words within the em dashes |
| parentheses | to enclose insignificant information |
| brackets | used to enclose added words to a quotation and add insignificant information within parentheses |
| slash | used to separate lines of poetry within a text or indicate interchangeable terminology |
| ellipses | used to indicate information removed from a quotation to indicate a missing line of poetry or create a reflective pause |
| language learning | comes through direct instruction, students are conscious of the fact that they are learning and gaining knowledge and are able to speak about their new knowledge and explain where it comes from |
| language acquisition | a subconscious process in which language is internalized without deliberate intent |
| Cognitive theory of development | Composed of 4 stages which describe the cognitive abilities of children as they move from childhood to adolescence and construct their own understanding of the world. No stages can be skipped |
| Sensorimotor stage | generally occurs from birth to two years of age.child's knowledge is based on physical interactions and experiences. Language is a physical skill that babies learn by experimenting with the sounds their mouths make. May imitate familiar sounds/mimic them |
| Preoperational stage | 2-7 years intelligence is demonstrated through use of symbols. Kids talk constantly with little purpose or meaning. Speech is thinking aloud, children have egocentric POVS |
| Concrete operational | 7-11 years. Increased intelligence through logical and organized thinking. Can use inductive reasoning and recognize other POVs Language is used for specific facts+ concrete ideas, not abstract |
| Formal operational | last stage, adolescents logically use symbols and their relationships to abstract concepts to demonstrate intelligence. Can use inductive and deductive reasoning and can use language for multiple purposes(abstract theory, philosophy, logic) |
| Key ideas of connectionist theory | language usage is based on a person's perception of language. Repeated linguistic input creates patterns in learners. Language acquisition is the result of personal experiences. Neural mapping is essential to language acquisition |
| Connectionism | holds that language comprehension and production abilities develop through continual engagement with language, Input is important in generating knowledge and extracting meaning. neural connections created by exposure to lingual input + improved w/exposure |
| Behaviorist theory | repeated exposure to stimuli can create learning. The more frequently a behavior is performed,the quicker it becomes habit. The more frequently kids are exposed to language, the quicker they adopt it |
| behaviorism relies on | conditioning. rewards of praise, smiles, and excitement encourage the production of sounds by infants. As words are created, children are encouraged to repeat, given corrections,and spoken to directly |
| linguistic set | developed 5-6 years, groups of words and rules that compose an individuals working knowledge of language based upon previous efforts and much of it mirrors adults around them |
| monitor model | Stephen Krashen, 5 hypotheses, no difference in how 1st and 2nd languages are acquired. Ability to learn languages comes from listening conscientiously to create meaning, relying on stimuli from outside sources |
| Acquisition learning hypothesis | learning the rules of a language will not allow users to produce output. Memorization of grammatical and structural rules isnt authentic-wont allow learners to use the language better. Only language acquisition allows effective acquisition of new language |
| input hypothesis | comprehensible input is necessary for students acquiring a new language . Comprehensible input in itself is enough to lead to language acquisition |
| Comprehensible input | the language that is just above the student's current grasp, allowing them to utilize their current knowledge while gaining exposure to new information |
| monitor hypothesis | knowledge gained through formal learning is useful in certain settings, like written work +self correcting. Monitoring lets them solidify their understanding of language but can also detract from focus on conveying meaning if they are too focused on sc |
| natural order hypothesis | language is attained in a certain pattern. Order it is acquired doesnt rely on grammatical features of the language and cant be altered through direct teaching. Frustration occurs when students are presented with info they arent ready to learn |
| affective filter hypothesis | language acquisition can only occur when comprehensible input reaches processing center without being filtered. Low self esteem, poor motivation, and anxiety can act as filters. Both input and output increase with low filters |
| universal grammar | noam chomsky children born with ability to understand human voice & distinguish between parts of a language they have capacity to understand differences in phonemes. Humans have ability to acquire create & comprehend lang despite gram/comp difference |
| poverty of stimulus | children aren't born with enough exposure to their native languages to explain their ability to understand phonemes, so this exposure can't account for the sum of learned language |
| pre-speech stage | infants learn to pay attention to speech, inflection, rhythm before beginning to speak |
| initial vocalizations | expressions of discomfort, crying, fussing, or byproduct of sucking, swallowing, burping, and coughing |
| 2-4 months | infants vocalize expressions of comfort. Grunts, sighs, cooing |
| 4 months | babies begin to laugh |
| babbling stage | infants play by controlling the pitch of their sounds (grunts/squeals) change their volume & create sounds w/friction (snorts/raspberries). Near end infants create long sequences of consonant vowel sounds |
| one-word stage | kids use single words to convey full meaning. Words identify an action, convey an emotion, or name something |
| underextension | too narrow of a definition ex. referring to only one stuffed animal as a toy |
| overextension | too wide a definition of a word ex. all animals with tails as doggy |
| two-word stage | happens around 2 years old. Vocab acquisition rates begin @ 1-3 wpw & can get to 10 wpw after learning ~words have been learned kids start combining words to form mini sentences |
| early multiword stage/telegraphic stage | kids mostly understood by parents&caregivers. begin using elements of grammar&repeating longer sentences but cant create their own. Kids leave out parts of speech like pronouns, determiners & modals |
| later multiword stage | age 5 average 4-6 words per sentence & can experience vocab increases as many as 20 words per day. By age 8 kids know about 28,300 words |
| transfer | when one applies knowledge of a 1st language onto another. Can be positive or negative |
| positive transfer | occurs when students find similarities b/w their native language and English & use those similarities to aid in their learning |
| cognates | visually similar words that share meaning |
| false cognates | words that appear similar but are different in meaning |
| negative transfer/interference | occurs when students incorrectly apply rules from their native language to their learning of English |
| code-switching | students mix words from their 1st language in with the language they are learning when they've forgotten a word or don't know how to express themselves |
| accents | when speakers substitute the sounds of their first language for ones they think are the same in English. Stress and intonations can be carried from first languages. |
| silent period | students are unwilling or unable to communicate in their new language. Must be given time to listen to others speak and digest what they hear before speaking themselves. This aids vocab development. Lasts up to 1 year |
| interlanguage | the learner's present understanding of the language they are learning . Rule based system that develops over time and tends to blend aspects of 1st language with 2nd language. Characterized by tendency to over generalize |
| fossilization | the point in second language acquisition in which a learner's growth freezes in place and further linguistic development is highly unlikely. Aids in language progression |
| when morphemes are understood | the earliest developmental stages of language acquisition |
| morpheme acquisition order | the pattern in which the knowledge of these elements is gained as people acquire language. Within first language acquisition, the pattern remains consistently fixed for all learners. Pattern is less fixed for ELLs |
| preproduction | silent period. learners have >500 words in receptive vocab, but refrain from speaking. Will listen/copy words down. Can respond to visual cues & will communicate their comprehension. students may parrot back what they have heard |
| early production | learners have 1000 word receptive and active vocabulary. Can produce 1-3 word phrases and respond to questions and statements with them.Learners enjoy playing musical games/word plays that help them memorize groups of words/related phrases |
| speech emergence | vocab of 3000 words. can chunk simple words and phrases into sentences that may/may not be grammatically correct. respond well to models of proper usage. can converse with native english speakers and comprehend text with visual support |
| intermediate fluency | 6000 word vocab. can speak in complex sentence & catch/correct their own errors. willing to ask clarifying questions. can communicate fairly well but have gaps in vocabulary & grammatical/syntactical understanding. Comfortable in group conversations(BICS) |
| advanced fluency | cognitive language proficiency in learned language . Demonstrate near native ability and use complex, multiphrase, multiclause sentences to convey ideas. Essential fluency (still accent. trouble with idioms) |
| intrinsic motivation | one's personal drive to succeed or learn. more inclined to participate in discussions, internalize feedback and error corrections, which increases language acquisition success |
| extrinsic motivation | relies on external rewards for behaviors. may take longer to succeed in acquiring second language |
| language modeling | providing accurate examples of speech and language for language learners. Occurs formally and informally . |
| informal language modeling | teachers use age-appropriate academic language as they conduct class, address behaviors, and teach lessons. This increases learner's familiarity with the language and sets the tone for the class |
| formal language modeling | typically takes a single specific goal and involves learners in developing the skill through practice. Targets may be related to pronunciation, grammar, vocab, or another element of linguistic development. |
| strong modeling | requires measured pace and begins with use of short sentences and targeted appropriate vocabulary. calls for much repetition |
| scaffolds | supports for students that allow them to grasp what may otherwise be out of reach. Should provide models of thought process that students can use to answer the question or problem in front of them |
| examples of instructional scaffolds | asking questions, offering contextual details, and providing visual cues and aids |
| literacy | ability to read write think speak and understand a given language |
| phonemes | smallest units of sound that can be heard within a word ex. sh is one phoneme |
| phonemic awareness | learners ability to identify and use various phonemes to aid them in spoken english, allowing them to see how these sounds work together to form words |
| graphemes | symbols used to represent phonemes. Single letters or groups of letters that represent a sound (ex. wr and r both make the /r/ sound) |
| spelling pronunication | mispronouncing a word based on its spelling |
| eye dialect | spelling a word incorrectly based upon its pronunciation |
| standard conventions of written english | the grammar, usage, and mechanics rules that govern the proper production of the english language, particularly in written form |
| grammar | the set of rules that apply to properly structured sentences; covers how words function within a sentence and how they're combined into various structures |
| usage | refers to the generally accepted ways in which words and phrases are used in different contexts |
| mechanics | the rules of print that don't exist in spoken language. Refers to spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and proper paragraphing of written word |
| genres | types of writing. Ability to successfully convey+analyze messages in several different genres is a key requirement for reaching second language proficiency |
| narrative writing | stories with plot, characters, and figurative language, and dialogue |
| descriptive writing | describing things so clearly that readers are able to form pictures in their minds of what is being written. Involves details of all 5 senses. Can aid in increasing vocabulary |
| expository writing | used to explain or inform. written around a central topic & supported by facts+information relevant to the topic. Thesis statement, body paragraphs, and conclusion. |
| argumentative writing | students argue a position on something . They take a side, present their arguments and explain why their position is more logical, correct, or stronger than the opposing position |
| procedural writing | provides readers with information about the necessary steps to accomplish a particular task. Seen in how-to books and operating manuals |
| rhetorical pattern | the type of organization used in a written piece. Ex. Chronological order, listing, cause and effects, classification, compare/contrast, problem and solution |
| whole language approach | belief that learners should start at the top and work their way down, meaning that language should be considered in its complete form prior to being broken down into smaller pieces. ability to communicate is primary goal |
| phonics/skills based approach | specific skills in reading writing and speaking are targeted and practiced each day. Focus on transferring student skills independently. skills developed through rehearsal and review, particularly that of critical content. students taught accountability |
| language experience approach (LEA) | uses learner's prior knowledge and experiences to generate specific lessons that are designed to enhance the learning of each individual student. Experiences are written down and the resulting text is used as reading material for that student |
| emergent literacy stage | competencies developed in early childhood and preschool . Identifying letters, words, and basic linguistic patterns like consonant blends. sounding out words as they're transferred to paper helps them make meaning of the alphabet |
| early stage of literacy development | characterized by learner's use of multiple strategies to predict and understand words. Students pay attn to visual cues and use the information to aid them in making sense of language. benefit from discussions about reading use context clues and bk |
| transitional stage | steady reading pace and understanding of multiple strategies that can be used to decode difficult texts. can provide oral summaries of readings |
| fluency stage | can demonstrate the ability to maintain meaning throughout longer and more complex texts. understand how different kinds of texts work, their purposes, and their discussions reflect summary and evaluation of text |
| phonological awareness | the understanding that language is made up of sounds syllables rhythms words and patterns |
| children with a firm grasp of phonological awareness in their first language are more likely to be successful in their acquisition pf a second language | true |
| pattern of development for phonological awareness | learn from larger groups (words) to smaller groups (the phonemes themselves) |
| direct method/natural method | based on the principle that skills are slowly developed as students acquire targeted vocab through repeated exposure to authentic language use supported by visuals. emphasis on oral language but doesnt require students to speak. Stress free environment |
| induction | students figure out rules of language as they acquire speaking and listening skills learning through imitation + trial and error |
| grammar translation method | teaches in students native languages while concentrating on grammatical rules of the target language. helps students recognize similarities b/w the 2 languages translates b/w languages in activities that help develop strengths in reading and writing |
| audio lingual method | og used to communicate w/foreign soldiers&officers. teaches target language through repetition. engages kids in repetitive grammatical structural patterns&vocab&focus on key phrases &significant dialogue considered useful to the particular circumstances |
| communicative approach | says that successful acquisition comes from the need to communicate real meaning. To acquire language, learners must be required to use real communication to engage their strategies for acquisition |
| communicative language teaching | students use authentic texts and realistic scenarios to practice skills they'd use outside the classroom. Encouraged to consider personal experiences to link new learning to prior knowledge to develop understanding of material |
| task based instruction | lessons are designed around the completion of tasks that are either assigned by instructors or selected by students. the activities have real outcomes that students can use to judge their performance on the task |
| total physical response | gives students the opportunity to acquire language skills by listening to and following spoken commands through modeled and repeated gestures. Expands vocab and comprehension skills by |
| the silent way | teachers are silent as much as possible to promote student participation and experimentation and to concentrate on learning over teaching. attention paid to pronunication avoid praise or criticism. use gestures and minimal speech |
| cuisenaire rods | sets of colored rods of different lengths that can be manipulated to demonstrate prepositional relationships, make comparisons, represent objects, and form models |
| fidel charts | displays of english words arranged according to their sounds |
| push in model | esol teachers travel to content classrooms providing additonal support and services to language learners. ESOL teachers may use 1on1 instruction assign small group word or aid the content teacher with whole group instruction. co-planning is best |
| team teaching | esol & gen ed teacher play important roles and take turns delivering lessons to the class. Gen ed teacher is content expert esol teacher is expert in creating accommodations for ELLS |
| small group instruction | esol teacher takes group of ells during independent work time and reinforces/reteaches skills that were covered in the content lesson. small group lessons are intended to align with classroom content but can be aligned to esol objective based plan |
| one on one instruction | occurs during independent work time, should align with content area goals and objectives to ensure that students are progressing simultaneously in their content and language learning . best used sparingly |
| pull-out | certified esol teachers take small groups of students from their content areas for limited portions of the school day. els receive specialized instruction focusing on content work, vocab, and grammar objectives sessions 30-45 minutes. |
| sheltered instruction observation protocol | 8 components. Lesson prep, building background, comprehensible input, learning strategies, interaction, practice and application, lesson delivery, review and assessment |
| lesson preparation | lessons are purposeful accessible relevant, driven by clearly defined content&language objectives appropriate to learner ages and educational background. use variety of materials and methods to engage students at all language proficiency levels |
| building background | direct connections made between prior learning and background experiences and the new material being covered. Key vocab taught and emphasized prior to lesson when new words are presented in context of larger learning objective |
| learning strategies | students explicitly instructed in higher order thinking and metacognitive skills to encourage student comprehension & retention of material. Consistent scaffolding and opportunities to rehearse cognitive skills |
| interaction | students given ample time to interact with teacher and one another to engage with material through extended discussions where they gain deeper understanding of concepts, internalize new language, and practice receptive and productive communication. |
| practice and application | hands on materials and manipulatives used throughout lessons to practice and apply content knowledge to language learning. use reading writing speaking and listening to connect abstract and concrete skills |
| lesson delivery | content & language objectives clearly and continuously supported through lessons. lessons paced to match student ability levels and engage students. use discussions and hands on activities |
| review and assessment | review concepts and vocab throughout and at the end of lessons to reinforce material and retention of it. provide constructive feedback based on formal and informal assessments used to guide future instruction |
| academic standards | define the knowledge and skills that students must attain at each grade level |
| content area standards | identify what students are supposed to learn in a given time frame in a specific subject. guide instruction and clearly define achievement goals so students learn the same material and gain the same skills |
| content objectives | identify what students should be able to do at the end of a content area lesson. should have measurable goals and be written in student friendly language |
| language objectives | describe how ESOL students will demonstrate their mastery of language materials by reading, writing, speaking, or listening. clear and measurable. |
| cognitive strategies | help students retain and organize the knowledge they gain. help students become more successful in their learning. 6 types |
| comprehension strategies | help students process and retain content. usually broken into subcategories of monitoring, using text structure, summarizing, elaborating, and explaining. help retain & comprehend new information |
| writing strategies | help students complete unstructured tasks by emphasizing the importance of planning to make and organize ideas. Teach explicit planning brainstorming editing and revising strategies. creates comprehensive well composed pieces |
| problem solving strategies | help students see ways they can achieve a specific goal. most important skills equip students to understand a problem and develop a plan to solve it. use reflection |
| reasoning strategies | help students determine what they believe to be true/false, correct/incorrect . involves creation of arguments &counterarguments, fair evaluation of evidence, and careful consideration of source material |
| self regulation strategies | help students monitor their behaviors . self monitoring, evaluation, time management, and goal setting. contribute to metacognitive processes and focus |
| metacognitive strategies | thinking about thinking. reflect on thinking process and knowledge . teach how to analyze knowledge to plan monitor evaluate and revise thinking to meet learning goals. lets students identify prior knowledge, what they dont know, &what they need to learn |
| types of metacognitive strategies | identify what is known and what is known and what is not, plan for tasks, keep a thought journal, talk about thinking, self evaluate, discuss an activity |
| strategies for activating prior knowledge | introduce vocabulary before content, use graphic organizers outlines and diagrams, brainstorm ideas about the topic or content, ask questions about topic and things related to it |
| discrete language skills | aspects of language governed by rules like phonics grammar and syntax. taught through direct instruction through focused exercises |
| integrated language skills | skills that allow students to practice and apply their knowledge of different elements of language simultaneously. 2 different approaches |
| content based language instruction | involves use of subject matter material as the basis for practicing communicative skills . learners motivated to engage in stimulating activities that introduce them to new subject matter concepts while offering opportunity to be exposed to english |
| task based instruction | calls for students to participate in communicative acts to complete a particular task. activities require students to comprehend, produce, manipulate, and interact with english while focusing on meaning and conveying ideas with proper grammar and syntax |
| multisensory strategy | using learning materials that integrate multiple senses. providing instruction targeting visual auditory and kinesthetic pathways to promote memory and learning . part to whole instruction |
| authentic language materials | materials intended for everyday use by native language speakers. ex. menus pamphlets commercials and television broadcasts. use in lessons makes lessons more relevant |
| semi authentic materials | created by native or nonnative speakers and based on original materials, but have been adapted to fit the lesson objectives and the needs of students . popular with low level learners. let students access content w/out being overwhelmed by grammar & vocab |
| strategies for effect esol instructors | have language rich environment that encourages kids to interact with english in many ways, teach strategies to help kids learn language, use kids native language to support english development |
| strategies for effect esol instructors part 2 | use instructional strategies&approaches that bridge languge&content learning, correlate lang standards & assessments w/content area standards& assessments, know linguistic and academic needs of students |
| teachers of preliterate and nonliterate students must | recognize&evaluate orals skills of each learner, remember everything is new to the students, expect student progress to be slower than that of literate learners, celebrate small achievements |
| teachers of preliterate and nonliterate students must part 2 | repeat things slowly and frequently to aid students in retaining new info, sequence materials from most concrete to most abstract to help students build upon their knowledge, teach students classroom expectations rules and learning practices |
| visual learners | learn best by seeing things: pictures, written words, colorful posters, flashcards, tests with illustrations, charts & graphs, computer graphics, and videos |
| auditory learners | learn by listening: spoken instruction, listening to stories, songs, short stories. excel in pronunciation exercises |
| tactile learners | learn by touching and manipulating objects: passing around flash cards, having learners trace and touch words, creating models, playing board games, gesturing, using puppets toys and blocks |
| kinesthetic learners | learn through physical movement: play games that require whole body movement, setting up experiments, following instructions to do or make things, participating in activities that involve gesturing and motion |
| analytic learners | learn by focusing on details. structured lessons in which information is provided logically and directions are delivered sequentially. clear objectives puzzles missing letters or words and concentration games |
| global learners | focus on big picture and show little interest in specific details. interactive lessons, group activities, writing stories, making up games, dont correct them mid conversation |
| level appropriate materials | select length appropriate texts with a mix of familiar and unfamiliar vocab and a recognizable organizational pattern |
| age appropriate materials | can be created by modifying various classroom activities and resources to fit student need age and level |
| culturally appropriate materials | take into account student backgrounds, experiences, and interests. Steer clear of uncomfortable social political or religious topics that may make students uncomfortable |
| multimedia resources for esol and content instruction | internet websites, computer software programs, realia, audiovisual aids |
| realia | objects and materials from everyday life |
| audiovisual aids | any items that stimulate student sight or hearing: music, television, movie clips, theater productions, photos, etc |
| lateralization | when the two hemispheres of the brain to function as distinct halves. occurs between 2-12 years. easiest time to learn a second language |
| to develop higher order thinking: | students must be permitted to learn at their own pace. thematic and linguistic content must align for students, esol&content area teachers should plan together, class sizes should be kept small to provide individual attention to students. |
| to develop higher order thinking: part 2 | esol students and teachers should meet on a regular basis language lessons should focus on communicative skills first |
| affective domain | defines how people deal with emotional things such as feelings motivations and attitudes. influenced by daily experiences. teachers must be aware of student self esteem, motivation, and inhibitions to keep them positively engaged |
| language rich environments | engages students in communication and conversation on a daily basis, word walls for vocab, extensive classroom library, and posters displaying language concepts |
| constructive feedback | ensures that students dont lose confidence in what they're doing but recognize and implement ways to improve their skills. Feedback should be objective specific and relevant to lesson at hand |
| independent learning skills | allow kids to make progress in their learning without direct assistance from teachers, enabling kids to personalize what their studying and take ownership of skill development. requires strong student teacher relationship, productive environment |
| strategies to ensure active involvement in learning | scaffold, teach students self monitoring, model independent learning behaviors, maintain open communication focusing on student learning and achievements, provide open feedback on student progress |
| reliability | data show that the test produces the same predictable results under different conditions and in different settings |
| validity | data show that the test measures what it says it measures in a specific context. 3 types: content validity, construct validity, and criterion related validity |
| content validity | demonstrated when items on a test are shown to measure the content knowledge they say that they measure. Often referred to as alignment because tests should align with the subject matter being tested |
| construct validity | demonstrated when items on a test are shown to adhere to an underlying construct(concept theory or hypothesis) that represents the guiding purpose of the assessment. tests must measure only ability of what is being assessed |
| criterion related validity | demonstrated when items on a test are shown to measure specific criteria(predetermined standards) as confirmed by participant outcomes or scored. |
| concurrent criterion related validity | results of an assessment align as expected with other tests that measure similar criteria |
| predictive criterion related validity | the results of an assessment align as expected with future independent measures of the test takers (ex GPA) |
| practicality | the ease of accessing, administering, and scoring an assessment or test. Expense, time considerations, and usage are not prohibitive as a result of being to costly, time consuming, or unmanageable for the community its meant to serve |
| proficiency tests | used to measure english language abilities of students whose primary languages arent english. Typically measure proficiency in 4 or more language domains (commonly reading, writing, listening, speaking) |
| Individual literacy assessments | Administered one to one between examiner and student |
| Group literacy assessments | Administered by one examiner to a group of students |
| Basic inventory of natural language (BINL) | Used to measure oral language proficiency in one of 32 images by asking students to describe a set of images. Must be administered individually. Measures proficiency based on fluency level of complexity and avg sentence length |
| Language assessment scales (LAS) | Designed to measure oral proficiency and reading/writing abilities of K-12 kids. Oral measure must be individually administered. Reading and writing tests can be administered in small groups. Measure content like vocab, listening comp, story retelling. |
| Bilingual Syntax Measure (BSM) I | Used with students in K-2. Measure oral proficiency in English and/or Spanish and must be administered individually. Student scores based on grammatical structures or oral responses |
| Bilingual Syntax Measure (BSM) II | Used with students in K-12. Measures oral proficiency in English and/or Spanish and must be administered individually. Student scores based on grammatical structures of their oral responses |
| Idea proficiency tests (ITP) | Many forms. Used to measure the oral proficiency, reading, writing abilities of K-12 students. Oral measure administered individually, reading and writing can be administered in small groups. Measure content like vocab syntax reading for understanding |
| Woodcock-muñoz language survey | Individually administered assessment that measures cognitive aspects of language proficiency in the form of vocab usage verbal analogies and letter word identification. Available in Spanish and English |
| Formal individual literacy assessments | |
| individual literacy assessments | administered one to one between examiner and student |
| group literacy assessments | administered by one examiner to a group of students |
| Basic inventory of natural language(BINL) | measures oral language proficiency in 1 of 32 languages by asking students to describe a set of images. Administered individually measures proficiency based on fluency, level of language complexity & avg sentence length of student responses. Used k-12 |
| language assessment scales (LAS) | measure oral proficiency, reading, and writing abilities of k-12 kids. Oral administered individually but reading and written can be administered whole group. measures vocab, listening comp, & story retelling |
| bilingual syntax measure (BSM) I | used with students in k-2 measures oral proficiency in english or spanish and must be administered individually . scores based on grammatical structures of oral responses |
| bilingual syntax measure (BSM) II | used with students in 3-12 measures oral proficiency in english or spanish and must be administered individually . scores based on grammatical structures of oral responses |
| idea proficiency tests (IPT) | measures oral proficiency reading and writing abilities of K-12. oral individually administered but reading and writing administered in small group. Measure vocab syntax and reading for understanding. available in spanish and english |
| woodcock munoz survey | individually administered. measures cognitive aspects of language proficiency in the form of vocab usage, verbal analogies, and letter word identification. available in spanish and english |
| elementary and secondary education act (ESEA) | passed in 1965. gives states the authority to provide programs for students who face obstacles to optimal learning. establishes equal educational opportunity for all students |
| No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) | provides federal funding for language instruction programs for ELs on the condition EL identified students meet same content & achievement standards as gen ed student regardless of language barriers. states submit accountability plan to the us dept of ed |
| accountability | holding districts, schools, and educators accountable for student performance |
| every student succeeds act (ESSA) | continues govt effort to provide equal ed opportunity for all students w/out inflexible and punitive conditions of NCLB. states have more authority to determine accountability criteria based on challenges & needs of the student pop |
| school district legally required to administer placement tests to students identified as potential ELS through home language surveys | true |
| English Language Proficiency (ELP) standards | identify target language development skills an EL is expected to meet in the context of instruction that is appropriately scaffolded for optimal learning |
| reclassification criteria | used to determine when ELs have achieved the language skills necessary to succeed in english only classrooms |
| cutoff points | specific scores on state selected language and achievement tests that determine when english learners no longer require english language programs and services |
| receptive language skills | abilities related to understanding language that is received from an external source such as oral directions , commentary, visuals, sounds, written words . measure listening and reading abilities |
| productive language skills | abilities related to producing comprehensible language from within. writing and speaking abilities. AKA expressive language skills |
| standardized assessments | use a standard. means of scoring individuals who are responding to the same set of instructions and/or questions. measure individual ability in relation to predetermined/established scoring criteria related to particular constructs |
| constructs | areas of content knowledge |
| large scale standardized tests | used to assess student language proficiency/academic achievement across a range of state and/or national educational standards. given to large populations of students under uniform conditions and measure their performance against state/national norms |
| performance based assessment | use open ended scoring based on teacher observation, measuring student ability in a wider context that incorporates creativity, innovation, insight, collaboration, and other abilities not shown in quantitative measures |
| portfolio assessment | performance based means to measure student progress over time through work samples, observational notes, student teacher reflection. Provide concrete visual markers that demonstrate academic growth, learning style, language ability |
| home language surveys | short forms that are sent home as part of school enrollment packets, used by districts to determine primary languages spoken in the homes of students. determine english language ability of students for placement |
| diagnostic assessments | provide detailed information abt a students current levels of performance & help determine curriculum + instructional methods most appropriate for the students needs. Helps teacher determine skills and areas of lang development to be emphasized |
| progress monitoring assessments | administered on a regular basis to document and monitor student language proficiency and academic growth. Assessments can be formal or informal. can help teachers determine which instructional measures are effective |
| WIDA Proficiency levels | 1- entering 2- beginning 3-developing 4-expanding 5-bridging 6-reaching |
| Measure of Developing English Language (MODEL) | a series of assessments that can be used by educators anywhere in the world, regardless of membership. Can be used to identify and place english learners and monitor progress towards instructional goals |
| W-APT | diagnostic assessment used to screen english learners for proper instructional programs and placements |
| ELPA21 | English language proficiency assessment for the 21st century. goals are aligned to English language proficiency standards by council of chief state school officers |
| 2015 | ELPA21 first field test |
| 2016 | first operational ELPA21 assessment was administered |
| standardized classroom assessments | observational/ interview checklists, observational/interview rating scales, grades, standardized tests/quizzes |
| observational/ interview checklists | educators check off skills demonstrated according to specific criteria while observing or interviewing and individual student |
| observational/interview rating scales | educators rate student performance on a predeveloped scale while observing or interviewing an individual student. The scale provides levels of proficiency aligned to certain concepts |
| grades | educators grade student work according to predetermined criteria and assign percentages/points based on how well a student has met the criteria of an assignment |
| standardized tests/quizzes | educators administer unit tests/quizzes that measure student understanding of taught concepts. Students receive points for accurate responses to questions, designed to ascertain how well they've comprehended the skills and knowledge covered in instruction |
| performance based classroom assessments | observational notes, work samples, guided shared or interactive reading, retelling/paraphrasing, audio+video taping, journals or logs, student conferences |
| observational notes | educators keep brief notes of student behaviors, actions, questions, and responses from class discussions, one on one discussions, and collaborative projects |
| work samples | educators keep samples of written or visual work that represent new understandings or language proficiencies in portfolios that illustrate progress over time |
| guided shared or interactive reading | educator listen and note repetitions substitutions insertions omissions or self corrections as a student reads aloud |
| retelling/paraphrasing | educators ask a student to retell a story or paraphrase a concept in their own words to determine how well that student has comprehended the meaning or underlying idea of the material |
| audio/videotaping | educators record students engaged in learning activities/ presentations in order to illustrate their ability to use a set of skills collectively and/or to highlight strengths/weaknesses that can be discussed at a later date |
| journals or logs | educators have students keep reading logs, writing folders, or science journals to respond to learning experiences or materials. provide comprehension indicators to teachers and show where reteaching is needed |
| student conferences | educators meet with students to review work&ask questions to evaluate comprehension. help gain insight on how well a student comprehends materials and assignments. misunderstandings corrected with language mods, visuals, examples, & additional explanation |
| self and peer assessment tools | checklists, rubrics, reflection logs |
| checklists | provide inventory of criteria that must be met for optimal completion of assignment. include editing guidelines, project specifications, etc |
| rubrics | organized charts that provide rational for an assignment and focus on a small number of specific learning objectives. criteria for each objective is described and assigned a number. provide detail on how well a student has met criteria of assignment |
| reflection logs | allow students to think about their assignments in terms of their own goals and growth process. gives them the opportunity to identify next steps, recognize areas for improvement, and determine questions that need to be asked |
| portfolios | provide students with concrete evidence of their progress towards learning goals. By reviewing work that has developed along a continuum of increasing mastery of skills and abilities, students can see their own growth over time |
| section 504 of the 1973 rehabilitation act | prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in public and private programs that receive federal money |
| americans with disabilities act | prevents discrimination in employment, public services, and accommodations based solely on an individuals disability |
| individuals with disabilities education act (IDEA) | mandates that all children receive the highest standard of public education free from discrimination and tailored to their unique learning needs. Provides federal assistance to state and local agencies to guarantee appropriate educational services |
| learning disabilities | specific kinds of processing problems that can cause a person to have trouble learning and using certain skills like reading, writing, speaking, reasoning, doing math |
| individualized education program | specifies the educational goals for the student and the services the school will supply to support the student in reaching those goals |
| to refer an EL for SPED | demonstrate that difficulty remains consistent even when language barriers are removed and that over time the student hasnt kept pace with other ELs that entered school at comparable times with comparable levels of proficiency |
| comprehensive | multiple sources of data are evaluated by a multidisciplinary team. data demonstrate results in students first language and in english |
| assessment bias | qualities that provide advantages or disadvantages to a particular group of students-results in scores that vary significantly from group to group according to gender, race, primary language, or ethnicity |
| language bias | occurs when a test that was originally developed for use in one language is translated to and administered in another which alters the the original conditions under which the assessment was shown to have reliability and nullifying the scores |
| cultural bias | occurs when a test offends/penalizes a test taker due to items related to socioeconomic statues, gender, or ethnicity. Can cause items on an assessment to be more vague and difficult to answer for one group of students than another |
| literal items | refer directly to the content of reading material where the answer is defined word by word |
| inferential items | require the test taker to read between the lines in order to determine what an author is implying. May demonstrate cultural bias when a test taker makes a reasonable inference based on their cultural background which is scored as incorrect |
| norms | population samples used to determine the reliability and validity of an assessment in order to ensure that the initial comparison groups included significant representation of linguistically, culturally, and socioeconomically diverse students |
| criterion referenced assessments | measure test takers results according to a pre established performance standard related to a specific content domain whose results provide information regarding a students mastery of the measured skills. scores normally percentages |
| norm references assessments | measure student performance in comparison to that of similar students. scores are compared to those of normative group. Used to rank students and differentiate b/w high/low achievers. hard to use correctly with ELs |
| normative group | initial sample of test takers |
| differentiate | identifying conditions and materials that contribute meaningfully to the achievement of individual students |
| english as a second language (ESL) | learners placed at appropriate grade level in english speaking classrooms in which the teacher differentiates instruction to meet the instructional needs of students who have a primary language thats not english |
| bilingual | ELs placed at appropriate grade level in classrooms in which the most instruction is delivered in the primary language with supplemental instruction in english taking place at a designated time and place during the school day |
| dual language | common grade level curriculum is taught in 2 languages that can represent the 1st & 2nd language of one group or two groups |
| one way dual language program | for students whose primary language is Spanish would provide a common grade level curriculum in both english and spanish |
| two way dual language program | for students whose primary language is spanish would provide a common grade level curriculum in both english and spanish but the classroom population would be half english speakers and half spanish speakers |
| Sapir Whorf Hypothesis | states that a human's thoughts and actions are determined by the languages they speak & their culture is strongly related to their language |
| linguistic determinisim | all human thought and action is totally controlled by language. language determines culture |
| linguistic relativism | language only partially influences human thought and action. language relates to culture |
| individualist cultures | value is placed on individual and individual accomplishments. values competitive behaviors, belief in equality, personal goals and ambitions take precedence over group goals, believe furthering oneself furthers the group |
| collectivist cultures | prioritizes the needs and outcomes of groups such as the greater community, society, or national. Identity is based on belonging to a group and behavior that contributes to group harmony is valued over personal goals/wishes |
| high context cultures | collectivist. Context and relationships factor importantly in communication. rules and traditions dictate interactions which are often formal and much is understood w/out being stated. use nonverbal communication |
| nonverbal communication | use of gestures, facial expressions, body language, and distance between speakers |
| low context cultures | individualist. seem loose and informal and much more is explicitly stated. facts, evidence, and information communicated outright to avoid misunderstanding |
| monochronic cultures | time is seen as linear with one event happening at a time. value punctuality and clearly divide work and leisure time. schedules important |
| polychronic cultures | view time holistically and conceive of many things happening at once. flexibility>punctuality & line b/w work and play is blurry. strengthening relationships and social activities more important than task completion |
| acculturation | the process of adapting to a new culture. may take several years. 4 stages: honeymoon, hostility, humor, home |
| honeymoon stage | students are delighted about the novelty of the new culture around them. New things seem interesting and fun. New culture seems exotic and stimulating, students are excited about the differences |
| hostility stage | students are getting comfortable with getting around and meeting basic needs, but may feel at odds with the new culture and homesick. will view new culture unfavorably compared to old on. kids may be moody/depressed. new culture seems strange and annoying |
| humor stage | students come to terms with their circumstances, move towards acceptance. see positive things about their new culture. some students may feel they are rejecting their home culture or some may be critical of the home culture |
| home stage | students are comfortable in their new culture. embrace and are at ease with their identity in the culture. feel comfortable with their heritage and can be themselves |
| assimilation | to become part of a new country or culture |
Created by:
cbowle14