Help
Options
Didn't know it?
click below
click below
Knew it?
click below
click below
Don't Know
Remaining cards (0)
Know
retry
shuffle
restart
0:00
Embed Code - If you would like this activity on your web page, copy the script below and paste it into your web page.
Normal Size Small Size show me how
Normal Size Small Size show me how
CHAPTER 1.8
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| An eponym is a term derived from a person's name, like | "Parkinson's disease," |
| while an acronym is formed from initial letters, such as "MRI" for | Magnetic Resonance Imaging |
| eponyms lack descriptive context, and acronyms may obscure meaning without | prior knowledge. |
| **Pericardium** | : "Peri-" (around) + "card" (heart) + "-ium" (membrane). |
| Peri - | Around |
| Card - | Heart |
| - Ium | Membrane |
| **Appendectomy | **: "Append" (appendix) + "-ectomy" (removal). |
| Append | (appendix) |
| Ectomy | (removal) |
| **Subcutaneous** | "Sub-" (under) + "cutane" (skin) + "-ous" (related to). |
| Sub | (under) |
| Cutane | (skin) |
| -ous | related to |
| **Phonocardiogram** | : "Phono-" (sound) + "cardio" (heart) + "-gram" (record). |
| : "Phono-" | (Sound) |
| "Cardio -" | (heart) |
| "-gram" | (record) |
| **Otorhinolaryngology**: | : "Oto-" (ear) + "rhino-" (nose) + "laryngo-" (throat) + "-logy" (study). |
| "Oto-" | (ear) |
| "rhino-" | (nose) |
| "laryngo-" | (throat) |
| "-logy" | (study) |
| Plural: Pleurae | Singular: Pleura |
| Plural: Gyri | Singular: Gyrus |
| Plural: Ganglia | Singular: Ganglion |
| Plural: Fissures | Singular: Fissure |
| Singular: villus | plural: villi |
| Singular: tibia | plural: tibiae |
| Singular: encenphalitis | plural: encephalitides |
| Singular: "cervix" | plural: "cervices," |
| Singular: "stoma" | plural: "stomata" |
| Unity of form and function | Form and function complement each other; physiology cannot be divorced from anatomy. |
| Unity of form and function | This unity holds true even down to the molecular level. Our very molecules, such as DNA and proteins, are structured in ways that enable them to carry out their functions. Slight changes in molecular structure can destroy their activity and threaten life. |
| Cell Theory | All structure and function result from the activity of cells. |
| Cell Theory | Every physiological concept in this book ultimately must be understood from the standpoint of how cells function. |
| Cell Theory | Even anatomy is a result of cellular function. |
| Cell Theory | If cells are damaged or destroyed, we see the results in disease symptoms of the whole person. |
| Evolution | The human body is a product of evolution. |
| Evolution | Like every other living species, we have been molded by millions of years of natural selection to function in a changing environment. |
| Evolution | Many aspects of human anatomy and physiology reflect our ancestors' adaptations to their environment. |
| Evolution | Human form and function cannot be fully understood except in light of our evolutionary history. |
| Hierarchy of complexity | Human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity. |
| Hierarchy of complexity | Each level is composed of a smaller number of simpler subunits than the level above it. |
| Hierarchy of complexity | These subunits are arranged in different ways to form diverse structures of higher complexity. |
| Hierarchy of complexity | Understanding the simpler components is the key to understanding higher levels of structure. |
| Homeostasis | The purpose of most normal physiology is to maintain stable conditions within the body. |
| Homeostasis | Human physiology is essentially a group of homeostatic mechanisms that produce stable internal conditions favorable to cellular function. |
| Homeostasis | Any serious departure from these conditions can be harmful or fatal to cells and thus to the whole body. |
| Gradients and flow | Matter and energy tend to flow down gradients such as differences in chemical concentration, pressure, temperature, and electrical charge. |
| Gradients and flow | This accounts for much of their movement in human physiology. |
| Architect Louis Henri Sullivan coined the phrase, "Form ever follows function." What do you think he meant by this? | Louis Henri Sullivan's phrase "Form ever follows function" suggests that the design of an object should be determined by its purpose. |
| Discuss how "Form ever follows function" could be applied to the human body and cite a specific example of human anatomy to support it. | In human anatomy, this is evident in the structure of the lungs. The alveoli, tiny air sacs, maximize surface area for gas exchange, reflecting their primary function of oxygenating blood. |
| Medical Imaging | The development of techniques for looking into the body without exploratory surgery has greatly accelerated progress in medicine |
| Radiography | , first performed in 1895, is the process of photographing internal structures with X-rays |
| Radiography | Until the 1960s, this was the only widely available imaging method; even today, it accounts for more than 50% of all clinical imaging. |
| Radiography | X-rays pass through the soft tissues of the body to a photographic film or detector on the other side, where they produce relatively dark images. |
| Radiography | They are absorbed, however, by dense matter such as bones, teeth, tumors, and tuberculosis nodules, which leave the image lighter in these areas. |
| X-ray | The term ---- also applies to an image (radiograph) made by this method. |
| Radiography | is commonly used in dentistry, mammography, diagnosis of fractures, and examination of the chest. |
| Hollow organs | can be visualized by filling them with a contrast medium that absorbs X-Rays |
| for example, is given orally for examination of the esophagus, stomach, and small intestine or by enema for examination of the large intestine. | Barium sulfate |
| Some disadvantages of ---- are that images of overlapping organs can be confusing and slight differences in tissue density are not easily detected. | radiography |
| In addition, X- rays can cause mutations leading to cancer and birth defects. ---- therefore cannot be used indiscriminately. | Radiography |
| What structures are seen better by MRI than by X-ray? | MRI is better than X-rays for visualizing nervous tissue, since X-rays do not penetrate bone very well. It also shows better contrast than X-rays in visualization of other soft tissues. |
| What structures are seen better by X-ray tan by PET? | X-rays are better than PET scans for visualizing bones, teeth, and other hard or dense tissues, as PET scans have relatively low resolution and do not serve well to visualize tissues with little regional variation in metabolic rate. |
| Blood vessels can be seen especially clearly with a radiographic method called digital subtraction angiography (DSA) | This entails taking X-rays before and after injecting a contrast medium into a vessel. A computer then "erases" the first image from the second, leaving a clear, dark image of just the injected vessels without the overlying and surrounding tissues. |
| is already being replaced in many clinics, however, by yet newer methods that are less invasive and avoid contrast medium and radiation exposure. | DSA |
| DSA | This is useful for showing vascular blockages and anatomical malformations, abnormalities of cerebral blood flow, and narrowing (stenosis) of renal arteries, and as an aid in threading catheters into blood vessels. |
| Computed tomography | (a CT scan) is a more sophisticated application of X-rays. |
| Computed tomography | The patient is moved through a ring-shaped machine that emits low-intensity X-rays on one side and receives them with a detector on the opposite side. |
| Computed tomography | A computer analyzes signals from the detector and produces an image of a "slice" of the body about as thin as a coin. |
| Computed tomography | The advantage of such thin planes of view is that there is little overlap of organs, so the image is much sharper than a conventional X-ray. |
| Computed tomography | It requires extensive knowledge of cross-sectional anatomy to interpret the images. |
| Computed tomography | CT scanning is useful for identifying tumors, aneurysms, cerebral hemorrhages, kidney stones, and other abnormalities. |
| Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | is better than CT for visualizing some soft tissues |
| Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) | The patient lies in either a tube or an open- sided scanner surrounded by a powerful electromagnet. |
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | Hydrogen atoms in the patient's tissues alternately align themselves with this magnetic field and with a radio-frequency field turned on and off by the technologist. |
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | These changes in hydrogen alignment generate signals that are analyzed by computer to produce an anatomical image. MRI can "see" clearly through the skull and spine to produce images of the nervous tissue |
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) | has disadvantages, however, such as the claustrophobic feeling some patients experience in the scanner, loud noises generated by the machine, and long exposure times that prevent sharp images being made of the constantly moving stomach and intestines. |
| It requires a patient to lie still in the enclosed space for up to 45 minutes to scan one region of the body and may entail 90 minutes to scan multiple regions such as the abdominal and pelvic cavities. | MRI - Some patients find they cannot tolerate this. |
| Open-sided MRI machines | are favored by some claustrophobic or obese patients, but have weaker magnetic fields, produce poorer images, and may miss important tissue abnormalities. |
| Functional MRI (fMRI) | is a variation that visualizes moment-to-moment changes in tissue function. fMRI scans of the brain, for example, show shifting patterns of activity as the brain applies itself to a specific sensory, mental, or motor task. |
| Functional MRI (fMRI) | has lately replaced the PET scan as the most important method for visualizing brain function. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | is used to assess the metabolic state of a tissue and distinguish which tissues are most active at a given moment. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | The procedure begins with an injection of radioactively labeled glucose, which emits positrons (electron-like particles with a positive charge). |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | When a positron and electron meet, they annihilate each other and give off a pair of gamma rays that can be detected by sensors and analyzed by computer. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | The computer displays a color image that shows which tissues were using the most glucose at the moment. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | This is an example of nuclear medicine-the use of radioactive isotopes to treat disease or to form diagnostic images of the body. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | PET scans are generally low-resolution, as in this photo, but nevertheless provide valuable diagnostic information |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | In cardiology, PET scans can show the extent of tissue death from a heart attack. |
| Positron emission tomography (the PET scan) | Since it consumes little or no glucose, the damaged tissue appears dark. |
| PET scans | are also widely used to diagnose cancer and evaluate tumor status. |
| It is now possible to diagnose Alzheimer disease (AD) with | PET scans |
| PET scans | Until recently, a definitive diagnosis required analysis of brain tissue after death. |
| PET scans | Examining living AD patients with ----- makes earlier diagnosis possible, potentially enabling more effective management of the disease. |
| PET scans | Conventional ---- take about 20 minutes, but new technology has enabled three-dimensional, whole-body scans to be made in as little as 20 seconds, with lower radiation exposure. |
| PET scans | This is helpful in scanning children, who may have difficulty lying still for 20 minutes. |
| Sonography | is the second oldest and second most widely used method of imaging |
| Sonography | A handheld device pressed against the skin produces high-frequency ultrasound waves and receives the signals that echo back from internal organs. |
| Sonography | isn't very useful for examining bones or lungs, but it is the method of choice in obstetrics, where the image (sonogram) can be used to locate the placenta and evaluate fetal age, position, and development. |
| Sonography | is also used to view tissues in motion, such as fetal movements, actions of the heart wall and valves, and blood ejection from the heart and flow through arteries and veins. |
| Sonographic | imaging of the beating heart is called echocardiography. |
| Sonography | avoids the harmful effects of X-rays, and the equipment is inexpensive and portable. |
| The meanings of anatomy and physiology and what it means to say these two sciences are complementary and inseparable | These sciences are inseparable because knowing the structure (anatomy) helps explain how it works (physiology), and vice versa. |
| Methods of study in anatomy | In anatomy, methods of study include dissection, imaging techniques like MRI and CT scans, and histology, which examines tissues microscopically. |
| Methods of study in physiology | Clinical examination involves physical assessments such as palpation, auscultation, and percussion to assess patient health. |
| Branches of anatomy that study the body at different levels of detail | Gross anatomy, Microscopic Anatomy, |
| How comparative physiology advances the understanding of human function | Comparative physiology enhances our understanding of human function by examining how different species solve life challenges like respiration and water balance. |
| Greek who first gave medicine a scientific basis | Greek and Roman scholars laid the foundation for scientific medicine by shifting focus from superstition to empirical observation. Hippocrates, often considered the "Father of Medicine," emphasized clinical observation and ethics. |
| Roman who gave medicine on a scientific basis | Galen advanced anatomical knowledge through dissections. |
| Maimonides | integrated Greek and Arabic medical knowledge, |
| Avicenna's | "The Canon of Medicine" became a medical reference for centuries |
| Vesalius | challenged anatomical misconceptions through detailed human dissections |
| Harvey | discovery of blood circulation revolutionized understanding of the cardiovascular system. |
| Why medical science today owes such a great debt to Hooke, | improved the microscope, allowing him to observe and name cells |
| Why medical science today owes such a great debt to Leeuwenhoek | enhancements enabled the discovery of microorganisms |
| How Schleiden and Schwann revolutionized and unified the understanding of biological structure, ultimately including human anatomy and physiology | revolutionized biology by proposing the Cell Theory, which states that all living organisms are composed of cells, and that the cell is the basic unit of life. |
| The essential qualities of the scientific method | is like a recipe for discovery, requiring observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and analysis. Key qualities include systematic observation, reproducibility, and falsifiability. |
| The nature of the inductive and hypothetico-deductive methods | The inductive method involves observing specific instances and forming general conclusions, like piecing together a puzzle from individual pieces. |
| How does inductive and hypothetico-dedutive methods differ | The hypothetico-deductive method, akin to testing a hypothesis in a lab, starts with a general idea and tests it through experiments. |
| How does inductive and hypothetico-dedutive methods differ | Inductive reasoning is often used in exploratory research, while hypothetico-deductive is prevalent in hypothesis-driven studies in biomedical science. |
| The qualities of a valid scientific hypothesis | A valid scientific hypothesis must be testable, measurable, and falsifiable, meaning it can be proven wrong. |
| The function of a hypothesis | Think of it as a detective's lead: it guides research and can be dismissed if evidence contradicts it. |
| What is meant by falsifiability in science? | is crucial because it ensures hypotheses can be rigorously tested, promoting scientific integrity and advancing knowledge. |
| How each of the following contributes to the reliability of a researcher's scientific conclusions and the trust that the public may place in science: sample size | A large sample size ensures diverse data, akin to surveying a large audience for varied opinions. |
| How each of the following contributes to the reliability of a researcher's scientific conclusions and the trust that the public may place in science: control groups | Control groups allow researchers to isolate variables, like comparing different plant growth conditions. |
| How each of the following contributes to the reliability of a researcher's scientific conclusions and the trust that the public may place in science: double-blind method | The double-blind method prevents bias by keeping both participants and researchers unaware of group assignments. |
| How each of the following contributes to the reliability of a researcher's scientific conclusions and the trust that the public may place in science: Statistical Testing | Statistical testing validates results, ensuring they're not due to chance. |
| How each of the following contributes to the reliability of a researcher's scientific conclusions and the trust that the public may place in science: Peer Review | acts as a quality check, much like a manuscript editor, ensuring the study's credibility before public dissemination |
| The distinctions between scientific facts, laws, and theories | In science, facts are observations confirmed repeatedly, like "water boils at 100°C." Laws describe relationships under specific conditions, such as Newton's laws of motion. |
| the purpose of a theory | serves as a comprehensive framework that synthesizes facts, laws, and confirmed hypotheses into explanatory statements. |
| how the scientific meanings of law differ from common lay meanings | In science, a law describes consistent natural phenomena, like the law of gravity, without dictating them. |
| how the scientific meanings of theory from common lay meanings | A theory, such as the theory of evolution, is a comprehensive explanation derived from extensive evidence, not a mere guess. |
| Evolution is the genetic change in populations | like bacteria becoming antibiotic-resistant. |
| Natural selection favors individuals with advantageous traits | like disease resistance, boosting their reproduction. |
| Selection pressures | , such as predators or climate, drive this process. |
| Adaptations are traits developed to handle these pressures, aiding survival and reproduction | , like camouflaged skin or behavioral changes. |
| The theory of ----, introduced by Charles Darwin in the 19th century, revolutionized our understanding of evolution. | natural selection |
| And how this theory is relevant to a complete understanding of human anatomy and physiology | The theory of natural selection is crucial for understanding human anatomy and physiology. |
| How the ---- among all species is relevant to the choice of model animals for biomedical research | Kinship among species is crucial in biomedical research as it allows scientists to use model animals with similar biological systems to humans. |
| Ecological conditions thought to have selected for such key characteristics of Homo sapiens as opposable thumbs, shoulder mobility, prehensile hands, stereoscopic vision, color vision, and bipedal locomotion | For instance, opposable thumbs allowed for better grasping of objects, while bipedalism enabled efficient movement across diverse terrains, highlighting the role of adaptation in human evolution. |
| The meaning of evolutionary medicine | explores how evolutionary principles, like natural selection and adaptation, influence human health and disease. |
| Levels of human or complexity from organism to atom | Each level builds upon the previous, contributing to overall function and structure. |
| [Reductionism] and holism: how they differ and why both ideas are relevant to the study of human anatomy and physiology and to the clinical care of patients | reductionism aids in detailed understanding, |
| Reductionism and [holism]: how they differ and why both ideas are relevant to the study of human anatomy and physiology and to the clinical care of patients | while holism ensures a comprehensive view, vital for effective patient care. |
| Examples of why the anatomy presented in textbooks is not necessarily true of every individual | For instance, not everyone has the same number of ribs or identical heart placement. Recognizing these variations is crucial for personalized medical care and understanding human diversity. |
| Eight essential qualities that distinguish living organisms from nonliving things | organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. |
| Eight essential qualities: ----, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. | organization |
| Eight essential qualities: organization, -----, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. | cellular composition |
| organization, cellular composition, ----, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. | metabolism |
| organization, cellular composition, metabolism, -----, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. | responsiveness |
| organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, -----, development, reproduction, and evolution. | homeostasis |
| organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, ----, reproduction, and evolution. | development |
| organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, -----, and evolution. | reproduction |
| organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and ---- | evolution |
| The meaning of metabolism | Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. |
| Clinical criteria for life and death | A person with no brain waves for 24 hours and dependent on artificial support may be legally declared dead, though some organs remain biologically viable for transplantation |
| and why clinical and biological death are not exactly equivalent | Biological death occurs when cellular processes cease irreversibly. Clinical death is the cessation of heartbeat and breathing, which can sometimes be reversed with medical intervention |
| among individuals is crucial in clinical settings as it influences diagnosis and treatment. | Physiological variation |
| offer typical values based on averages, but these don't account for individual differences. | Textbooks |
| Assumptions | in textbooks can overlook variations due to genetics, environment, or lifestyle, highlighting the need for personalized medical approaches to ensure accurate assessments and effective healthcare. |
| The meaning of homeostasis; its importance for survival; and the historical origin of this concept | Historically, Claude Bernard introduced the concept, emphasizing the body's dynamic equilibrium. |
| How negative feedback contributes to homeostasis | Similarly, in the body, negative feedback loops regulate internal conditions like blood pressure and glucose levels, ensuring stability. |
| The meaning of negative feedback loop | It maintains stability by counteracting changes. For example, in thermoregulation, if body temperature drops, mechanisms like shivering raise it back to the set point of around 37°C. |
| and at least one example of a neagtive loop | The brain then instructs sweat glands (effectors) to produce sweat, cooling the body back to a stable state. |
| How positive feedback differs from negative feedback | Positive feedback amplifies changes. In contrast, negative feedback maintains stability by counteracting changes, similar to a thermostat regulating room temperature. |
| examples of beneficial and harmful cases of positive feedback | Conversely, in a high fever, it can be harmful, as rising temperatures increase metabolic rates, generating more heat and potentially leading to a dangerous cycle if not controlled. |
| The concept of matter and energy flowing down gradients and how this applies to various areas of human physiology | Gradients drive essential biological functions, ensuring efficient energy use and maintaining homeostasis. |
| The origin and purpose of the Terminologia Anatomica (TA) and its relevance for anatomy students | The *Terminologia Anatomica (TA)* is a standardized medical lexicon that originated to unify anatomical terminology globally. For anatomy students, it's like a universal language guide, ensuring clarity and precision |
| How to break biomedical terms into familiar roots, prefixes, and suffixes | Breaking biomedical terms into roots, prefixes, and suffixes is like solving a puzzle. For example, in "cardiomyopathy," "cardio" refers to the heart, "myo" to muscle, and "pathy" to disease. |
| And why the habit of breaking biomedical terms doing so aids in learning | his habit helps in learning by revealing the term's meaning, aiding memory retention, and improving understanding. |
| Acronyms and eponyms, and why they cannot be understood by trying to analyze their roots | Acronyms, like "MRI" for Magnetic Resonance Imaging, condense complex phrases into initials. Eponyms, such as "Parkinson's disease," honor individuals, not word roots. |
| Structure that can be observed with the naked eye is called | gross anatomy |
| The word prefix homeo- means | same |
| The simplest structures considered to be alive are | cells |
| Which of the following people revolutionized the teaching of gross anatomy? | Vesalius |
| Which of the following embodies the greatest amount of scientific information? | a theory |
| An informed, uncertain, but testable conjecture is | a hypothesis |
| A self-amplifying chain of physiological events is called | positive feedback |
| Which of the following is not a human organ system? | epithelial |
| means studying anatomy by touch | palpation |
| The prefex "hetero -" means | different |
| Cutting and separating tissues to reveal structural relationships is called | dissection |
| A difference in chemical concentration between one point and another is called a concentration | gradient |
| By the process of ---, a medical researcher predicts what the result of a certain experiment will be if his or hypothesis is correct | deduction |
| Psychological effects of a person's mental state are called ---- effects | psychosomatic |
| The tendency of the body to maintain stable internal conditions conditions is called | homeostasis |
| Blood pH averages 7.4 but fluctuates from 7.35 to 7.45. A pH of 7.4 can therefore be considered the ---- for this variable | set point |
| Self-corrective mechanisms in physiology are called ----- loops | negative feedback |
| A/an ------ is the simplest body structure to be composed of two or more type of tissue | organ |
| Depth perception, or the ability to form three-dimensional images, is also called --- | stereoscopic vision |
| Our hands are said to be --- because they can encircle an object such as a branch or a tool. The presence of an ---- thumb is important to this ability. | prehensile, opposable |
| auscult - | listen-ausculation |
| dis - | apart-dissection |
| homeo - | the same-homeostasis |
| metabolo - | change-metabolism |
| palp - | touch-palpation |
| Physio - | nature-physiology |
| Sect - | Cut-Dissection |
| - Stasis | To stay-homeostasis |
| Stereo - | Solid-Stereostopic |
| Tomo - | to cut -tomography |
| The technique for taking a patient's pulse at the wrist is auscultation | auscultation means listening to body sounds, not inspecting the body by touch |
| For a pregnant woman to have an MRI scan would expose her fetus to radiation that can potentially cause mutation and birth defects | MRI does not involve ionizing radiation and has no known risk to a fetus |
| We usually depend on positive feedback to restore homeostatic balance and have a beneficial effect of the body | Positive feedback is beneficial in limited cases, but more often it causes rapid departure from the homeostatic set point and may cause illness or death. |
| There are more cells than organelles in the body | Each cell has many organelles, so organelles far outnumber cells |
| Matter doesn't generally move down a gradient in the body unless the body expends metabolic energy to move it | Matter will move spontaneously down a gradient without the need application of external energy |
| Leewenhock was a biologist who invented the simple microscope in order to examine organisms in lake water | Leewenhock was a textile merchant who built microscopes to examine fabric |
| A scientific theory is just a speculation until someone finds the evidence to prove it | A scientific theory is founded on a large body of evidence and summarizes what is already known |
| In a typical clinical research study, volunteer patients are in the treatment group and the physicians and scientists who run the study constitute the control group | Both treatment and control groups consist of volunteer patients |
| Human evolution is basically a theory that humans came from monkeys | Evolutionary biologists do not believe humans evolved from monkeys, but the humans and apes evolved from the same ancestor |
| Negative feedback usually has a negative (harmful) effect on the body | Negative feedback is a self-corrective process with a beneficial effect on the body |
| What are the basic principles of the cell theory? | 1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells. 2. The cell is the basic unit of life, where all vital functions occur. 3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division |
| Squamous | When describing cell shapes, "squamous" refers to thin, flat cells, similar to a fried egg. |
| Why can't cells grow to unlimited size? | Cells can't grow to unlimited size because of the surface area-to-volume ratio. Imagine a balloon: as it inflates, its surface area increases slower than its volume. |
| What is the difference between cytoplasm? | The cytoplasm is like a bustling city within a cell, containing everything between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It includes structures like the cytoskeleton, organelles, and inclusions. |
| Define intracellular fluid (ICF) | Intracellular fluid (ICF) refers to the liquid found inside cells, primarily composed of cytosol, where cellular components are suspended. It plays a vital role in maintaining cellular function and structure |
| "Stellate" | "Stellate" cells resemble stars with pointed extensions, like nerve cells. |
| "Columnar" | cells are taller than they are wide, resembling columns, found in the stomach lining. |
| "Fusiform" | cells are spindle-shaped, elongated with tapered ends, typical of smooth muscle cells. |
| What is the difference between cytosol? | on the other hand, is akin to the city's air, a clear fluid that fills spaces between these structures, allowing for movement and chemical reactions. |
| extracellular fluid (ECF) | . In contrast, extracellular fluid (ECF) surrounds cells, including blood plasma, lymph, and cerebrospinal fluid. |
| Many physiologically important processes occur at the surface of a cell-immune responses, the binding of egg and sperm, cell-to-cell signaling by hormones, and the detection of tastes and smells, for example. | A substantial part of this chapter is therefore concerned with the cell surface. |
| The plasma membrane defines the boundaries of the cell, governs its interactions with other cells, and controls the passage of materials into and out of the cell. | It appears to the electron microscope as a pair of dark parallel lines with a total thickness of about 7.5 nm |
| The side that faces the cytoplasm is the intracellular face of the membrane, and the side that faces outward is the extracellular face | . Similar membranes enclose most of a cell's organelles and control their uptake and release of chemicals. |
| Membrane Lipids | shows our current concept of the molecular structure of the plasma membrane—an oily film of lipids with proteins embedded in it. |
| Typically about 98% of the membrane molecules are lipids, | and about 75% of those are phospholipids. |
| phospholipids | These amphipathic molecules arrange themselves into a sandwichlike bilayer, with their hydrophilic phosphate-containing heads facing the water on each side and their hydrophobic tails directed toward the center, avoiding the water. |
| The phospholipids drift laterally from place to place, spin on their axes, and flex their tails. | These movements keep the membrane fluid. |
| What would happen if the plasma membrane were made primarily of a hydrophilic substance such as carbohydrate? Which of the major themes at the end of chapter 1 does this point best exemplify? | If the plasma membrane were primarily hydrophilic, like carbohydrates, it would fail to form a protective barrier, as it would dissolve in water. |
| Cholesterol molecules, found near the membrane surfaces amid the phospholipids, constitute about 20% of the membrane lipids. | By interacting with the phospholipids and holding them still, cholesterol can stiffen the membrane (make it less fluid) in spots. |
| Higher concentrations of cholesterol, | however, can increase membrane fluidity by preventing phospholipids from packing closely together. |
| The remaining 5% of the membrane lipids are glycolipids-phospholipids with short carbohydrate chains on the extracellular face of the membrane. | They contribute to the glycocalyx, a carbohydrate coating on the cell surface with multiple functions, described shortly. |
| Although proteins are only about 2% of the molecules of the plasma membrane, | they're larger than lipids and average about 50% of the membrane by weight. |
| There are two broad classes of membrane proteins: transmembrane and peripheral. Transmembrane proteins pass completely through the phospholipid bilayer, protruding from it on both sides. | They have hydrophilic regions in contact with the water on both sides, and hydrophobic regions that pass back and forth through the lipid |
| Most transmembrane proteins are glycoproteins, bound to oligosaccharides on the extracellular side. | Many of these proteins drift about freely in the phospholipid film, like ice cubes floating in a bowl of water. |
| Others are anchored to the cytoskeleton—an intracellular system of tubules and filaments discussed later. Peripheral proteins don't protrude into the phospholipid layer but adhere to either the inner or outer face of the membrane. | Those on the inner face are typically anchored to a transmembrane protein as well as to the cytoskeleton. |
| Transmembrane Proteins | A transmembrane protein has hydrophobic regions embedded in the phospholipid bilayer and hydrophilic regions projecting into the intracellular and extracellular fluids. |
| Transmembrane Proteins | The protein may cross the membrane once (left) or multiple times (right). The intracellular regions are often anchored to the cytoskeleton by peripheral proteins. |
| Receptors | Many of the chemical signals by which cells communicate (epinephrine, for example) cannot enter the target cell but bind to surface proteins called receptors. |
| Receptors | are usually specific for one particular messenger, much like an enzyme that is specific for one substrate. |
| Plasma membranes | also have receptor proteins that bind chemicals and transport them into the cell, as discussed later in this chapter. |
| When a messenger binds to a surface receptor, it may trigger changes within the cell that produce a second messenger in the cytoplasm. | This process involves both transmembrane proteins (the receptors) and peripheral proteins. Second-messenger systems are discussed shortly in more detail. |
| Enzymes in the plasma membrane carry out the final stages of starch and protein digestion in the small intestine, help produce second messengers, and break down hormones | and other signaling molecules whose job is done, thus stopping them from excessively stimulating a cell. |
| Channel proteins | Channels are passages that allow water and hydrophilic solutes to move through the membrane. |
| A channel is a tunnel that passes through a complex of multiple proteins or between subunits of an individual protein. | Some of them, called leak channels, are always open and allow materials to pass through continually. |
| Others, called ------, open and close under different circumstances and allow solutes through at some times, but not others | gates (gated channels) |
| These gates respond to three types of stimuli: ligand-gated channels respond to chemical messengers, voltage-gated channels to changes in electrical potential (voltage) | across the plasma membrane, and mechanically gated channels to physical stress on a cell, such as stretch and pressure. |
| By controlling the movement of ---- through the plasma membrane, gated channels play an important role in the timing of nerve signals and muscle contraction | electrolytes |
| Some receptors double in function as gated channels. When a nerve stimulates a muscle, for example, a chemical from the nerve fiber binds to a receptor on the muscle fiber | and the receptor opens to allow sodium and potassium ions to flow through and excite the muscle. Defects in channel proteins are responsible for a family of diseases called channelopathies. |
| Carriers | Carriers are transmembrane proteins that bind to glucose, electrolytes, and other solutes and transfer them to the other side of the membrane. Some carriers, called pumps, consume ATP in the process. |
| Cell-identity markers | Glycoproteins contribute to the glycocalyx, which acts like an “identification tag” that enables the immune system to tell which cells belong to one's body and which are foreign invaders. |
| Cell-adhesion molecules : Cells adhere to one another and to extracellular material through membrane proteins called cell-adhesion molecules (CAMS). With few exceptions (such as blood cells and metastasizing cancer cells), | cells don't survive and grow normally unless they're mechanically linked to extracellular material |
| Special events | such as sperm-egg binding and the binding of an immune cell to a cancer cell also require CAMS. |
| Receptor | A receptor that binds to chemical messengers such as hormones sent by other cells. |
| Enzyme | An enzyme that breaks down a chemical messenger and terminates its effect. |
| Channel | A channel protein that is constantly open and allows solutes to pass into and out of the cell. |
| Gated channel | A gate that opens and closes to allow solutes through only at certain times. |
| Cell-identity marker | A glycoprotein acting as a cell-identity marker distinguishing the body's own cells from foreign cells. |
| Cell-adhesion molecule (CAM) | A cell-adhesion molecule (CAM) that binds one cell to another. |
| Calcium channel blockers are a class of drugs that show the therapeutic relevance of understanding gated membrane channels. | The walls of the arteries contain smooth muscle that contracts or relaxes to change their diameter. |
| These changes modify the blood flow and strongly influence blood pressure. | Blood pressure rises when the arteries constrict and falls when they relax and dilate. |
| Excessive, widespread vasoconstriction can cause hypertension (high blood pressure), and vasoconstriction in the coronary blood vessels of the heart can cause pain (angina) due to inadequate blood flow to the cardiac muscle | . In order to contract, a smooth muscle cell must open calcium channels in its plasma membrane and allow calcium to enter from the extracellular fluid. |
| Calcium channel | blockers prevent these channels from opening and thereby relax the arteries, increase blood flow, relieve angina, and lower the blood pressure. |
| Second messengers | are of such importance that they require a closer look. |
| Let's consider how the hormone epinephrine stimulates a cell. Epinephrine, the "first messenger," can't pass through the plasma membrane, so it binds to a surface receptor. | The receptor is linked on the intracellular side to a peripheral G protein |
| G proteins are named for the ATP-like chemical, guanosine triphosphate (GTP), from which they get their energy. | When activated by the receptor, a G protein relays the signal to another membrane protein, adenylate cyclase |
| Adenylate cyclase | removes two phosphate groups from ATP and converts it to cyclic AMP (CAMP), the second messenger |
| Cyclic AMP | then activates cytoplasmic enzymes called kinases (KY-nace-es), which add phosphate groups to other cellular enzymes. |
| kinases | This activates some enzymes and deactivates others, but either way, it triggers a great variety of physiological changes within the cell. Up to 60% of drugs work by altering the activity of G proteins. |
| 1. | A messenger such as epinephrine (red triangle) binds to a receptor in the plasma membrane. |
| 2. | The receptor releases a G protein, which then travels freely in the cytoplasm and can go on to step 3 or have various other effects on the cell. |
| 3. | The G protein binds to an enzyme, adenylate cyclase, in the plasma membrane. Adenylate cyclase converts ATP to cyclic AMP (cAMP), the second messenger. |
| 4. | cAMP activates a cytoplasmic enzyme called a kinase. |
| 5. | Kinases add phosphate groups (P) to other cytoplasmic enzymes. This activates some enzymes and deactivates others, leading to varied metabolic effects in the cell. |
| Is adenylate cyclase a transmembrane protein or a pephireal protein? What about G protein? | Adenylate cyclase is a transmembrane protein. The G protein is peripheral |
| A receptor protein spans across a | cell membrane and binds with a signal molecule on the outside of the cell. |
| In the - in the cell's interior, guanosine triphosphate (GTP) binds with the G protein before it migrates to and activates a single adenylyl cyclase molecule. This releases cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), which is acting as the second messenger. | cytoplasm |
| The ---- molecules stimulate a molecule, protein kinase, in the cell, which activates an enzyme and produces several enzymatic product molecules. | cAMP |
| Receptor proteins interact with signal molecules at the surface of the cell. In most cases, the signals are relayed to the cytoplasm or the nucleus by second messengers, which influence the activity of one or more enzymes or genes inside the cell. | However, most signaling molecules are found in such low concentrations that their effects in the cytoplasm would be minimal unless the signal were amplified." |
| The signal and receptor molecules are the same as before, and there are four molecules of adenylyl cyclase not yet activated. | In the cell, there are five each of GTP and G protein molecules. A single signal molecule binds with the receptor protein and activates the entire series of four G protein molecules, one after the other. |
| Therefore, most enzyme-linked and G protein–linked receptors use a chain of other protein messengers to amplify the signal as it is being relayed. In the case of a protein kinase cascade, one cell surface receptor activates many G protein molecules. | Each G protein activates many adenylyl cyclases. Each cyclic AMP in turn will activate protein kinases, which then activates several molecules of a specific enzyme. The end result is rapid production of high levels of the final product. |
| External to the plasma membrane, all animal cells have a fuzzy coat called the | glycocalyx |
| composed of the carbohydrate moieties of membrane glycolipids and glycoproteins. | glycocalyx |
| It is chemically unique in everyone but ----- and acts like an identification tag that enables the body to distinguish its own healthy cells from transplanted tissues, invading organisms, and diseased cells. | identical twins |
| Human blood types and transfusion compatibility | are determined by glycolipids |
| Protection | Cushions the plasma membrane and protects it from physical and chemical injury |
| Immunity to infection | Enables the immune system to recognize and selectively attack foreign organisms |
| Defense against cancer | Changes in the glycocalyx of cancerous cells enable the immune system to recognize and destroy them |
| Transplant compatibility | Forms the basis for compatibility of blood transfusions, tissue grafts, and organ transplants |
| Cell adhesion | Binds cells together so tissues don't fall apart |
| Fertilization | Enables sperm to recognize and bind to eggs |
| Embryonic development | Guides embryonic cells to their destinations in the body |
| Many cells have surface extensions called -----. These aid in absorption, movement, and sensory processes. | microvilli, cilia, flagella, and pseudopods |
| Anatomy is the study of | body structures |
| Chemisty | is the study of matter |
| Kinesiology | is the study of human movement |
| Body Functions | Physiology is the study of body functions |
| What is an example of percussion? | Tapping on the body to listen for pockets of air |
| The term for the process of carefully separating tissues to reveal anatomical relationships is | dissection |
| Most exploratory surgery has been replaced with | medical imaging techniques |
| When a doctor feels for a swollen lymph node, which action is she using in her exam? | palpation |
| Students are looking at major arteries and veins on the surface of the heart, which does not require a microscope. They are studying ---- of the heart | gross anatomy |
| Histology is also called | microscopic anatomy |
| Who was the famous physician who served in the court of the sultan, Saladin | Maimonides |
| Andreas Vesalius | Vesalius was the Italian who taught anatomy to medical students using cadavers in the 1500s |
| Avicenna | Avicenna was the Muslim scholar who wrote the book, The Canon of Medicine |
| The study of ultrastructure focuses on fine details of cells or other structures. | False |
| The subdiscipline of physiology that is concerned with the mechanisms of disease is | pathophysiology |
| Percussion | Percussion refers to tapping on a body surface then listening to the echo to diagnose health. |
| Auscultation | refers to performing a physical examination by listening to sounds in the body |
| Palpation | Palpation refers to examination by feeling the body surface. |
| Autopsy | is a postmortem examination of the body by dissection |
| Galen | was the physician to the Roman gladiators who wrote extensively about human anatomy |
| Aristotle | wrote a book called "Of the Parts of Animals" |
| Maimonides | was the Jewish physician who served in the court of Saladin and wrote many books on medicine and diseases. |
| Andreas Vesalius | Vesalius was the Italian who taught anatomy to medical students using cadavers in the 1500s |
| Avicenna | was the Muslim scholar who wrote the book, The Canon of Medicine |
| Who was the Jewish physician that wrote 10 medical books and numerous books on diseases? | Maimonides |
| Who wrote the "Canon of Medicine" | Avicenna |
| In the 1500s ----- made great contributions to the study of physiology especially the heart | William Harvey |
| Who was the anatomist that taught anatomy anatomy to medical students using cadavers in the 1500s? | Andreas Vesalius |
| Robert Hooke authored a book called | Micrographia |
| Which of the following is a process by which an educated guess is capable of being tested and may be proven false by experimentation? | Scientific Method |
| Socratic method | This method of teaching by question and answer |
| Scientific hypothesis | This is not a process. It is an educated guess based on observations. |
| An education speculation or possible answer to a scientific question is called an | hypothesis |
| ---- was a Roman Physician and wrote an influential textbook. William Harvey is credited with beginning the field of experimental physiology | Galen |
| An example of a well-designed experiment would have a(n) ----- group, which would receive a placebo, and (a) ---- group, which would receive the intervention (i.e. treatment) being tested. | control, experimental |
| What method is used to control experimental bias where neither the subject nor the person giving treatment and recording data know which subjects are receiving the treatment and which are receiving the placebo? | double-blind method |
| A review that is the method of evaluating results by other experts in that field is called a(n) ----- review. | peer |
| What are the benefits of a large sample size? | It controls for chance events., It enables us to place greater confidence in the outcome., and It controls for individual variation.. |
| The information that can be independently verified by any trained person is considered a scientific | fact |
| The person best known for this theory of natural selection is Charles | Darwin |
| Evolution | a change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms |
| A treetop habitat is also called an ---- habitat | arboreal |
| What is the ability to walk upright on two feet called? | Bipedalism |
| Stereoscopic vision | This is the ability to see in 3-D |
| Opposable thumbs | This is the ability to hold a small object between the figures. |
| A tissue is more complex than an organ | False |
| Organs | are composed of tissues, and are thus more compex. |
Created by:
Russells3709