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CHAPTER 1.7
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| One of the greatest challenges faced by students of anatomy and physiology is the ----- | vocabulary |
| In this book, you will encounter such Latin terms as corpus callosum (a brain structure), ligamentum arteriosum (a small fibrous band near the heart), and --- | extensor carpi radialis longus (a forearm muscle) |
| The major features of human gross anatomy have standard international names prescribed by a book titled the Terminologia Anatomica (TA). | The TA was codified in 1998 by an international committee of anatomists and approved by professional associations of anatomists in more than 50 countries. |
| About 90% of today's medical terms are formed from just 1,200 Greek and Latin roots. | Scientific investigation began in ancient Greece and soon spread to Rome. The Greeks and Romans coined many of the words still used in human anatomy today: duodenum, uterus, prostate, cerebellum, diaphragm, sacrum, amnion, and others |
| Anatomists in different countries began giving different names to the same structures. | Adding to the confusion, they often named new structures and diseases in honor of their esteemed teachers and predecessors, giving us such nondescriptive terms as fallopian tube and duct of Santorini. |
| Terms coined from the names of people, called -----, afford little clue as to what a structure or condition is. | eponyms |
| In hopes of resolving this growing confusion, anatomists began meeting as early as 1895 to devise a uniform international terminology. | After several false starts, they agreed on a list of terms that rejected all eponyms and gave each structure a unique Latin name to be used worldwide. |
| Even if you were to look at an anatomy atlas in Korean or Arabic, the illustrations may be labeled with the same Latin terms as in an English-language atlas. | That list served for many decades until recently replaced by the TA, which prescribes both Latin names and accepted English equivalents. |
| The terminology in this book conforms to the --- except where undue confusion would result from abandoning widely used, yet unofficial, terms. | TA |
| The task of learning medical terminology seems overwhelming at first, but it is a simple skill to become more comfortable with the technical language of medicine. | People who find scientific terms confusing and difficult to pronounce, spell, and remember often feel more confident once they realize the logic of how terms are composed. |
| A term such as hyponatremia is less forbidding once we recognize that it is composed of three common word elements: hypo- (below normal), natr- (sodium), and -emia (blood condition). | Thus, hyponatremia is a deficiency of sodium in the blood. |
| Those word elements appear over and over in many other medical terms: hypothermia, natriuretic, anemia, and so on. | Once you learn the meanings of hypo-, natri-, and -emia, you already have the tools to at least partially understand hundreds of other biomedical terms |
| Those word elements appear over and over in many other medical terms | hypothermia, natriuretic, anemia, and so on. |
| Once you learn the meanings of hypo-, natri-, and -emia, you already have the tools to at least partially understand hundreds of other --- | biomedical terms |
| At least one ----- that bears the core meaning of the word. | root (stem) |
| cardiology | root: cardi - (heart) |
| Many words have two or more roots | cardio [my] (muscle) and [path] (disease) |
| Combining vowels | that are often inserted to join roots and make the word easier to pronounce. |
| In ---- , each o is a combining vowel. | cardiomyopathy |
| Although ---- is the most common combining vowel, all vowels of the alphabet are used in this way, such as a in ligament, | o |
| e in vitreous | combining vowel |
| i in fusiform | combining vowel |
| u in ovulation | combining vowel |
| y in tachycardia | combining vowel |
| Some words, such as intervertebral, have no | combining vowels |
| A combination of a root and combining vowel is called a | combining form |
| for example, chrom- (color) + o (a combining vowel) make the combining form chromo-, as in chromosome. | combining form |
| A --- may be present to modify the core meaning of the word. | prefix |
| gastric | (pertaining to the stomach or to the belly of a muscle) takes on a variety of new meanings when prefixes are added to it |
| epigastric | (above the stomach) |
| hypogastric | (below stomach) |
| endogastric | (within the stomach) |
| digastric | (a muscle with two bellies) |
| A ---- may be added to the end of a word to modify its core meaning. | suffix |
| For example, microscope, microscopy, microscopic, and microscopist have different meanings because of their ---- alone. | sufix |
| Often two or more suffixes, or a root and suffix, occur together so often that they're treated jointly as a compound suffix | for example, log (study) + y (process) form the compound suffix -logy (the study of) |
| Prefixes and suffixes are collectively called ----. | affixes |
| gastro | a combining form meaning "stomach" |
| entero | a combining form meaning "small intestine" |
| a compound suffix meaning "the study of" | logy |
| "Dissecting" words in this way and paying attention to the word-origin footnotes throughout this book will help you become more comfortable with the language of anatomy. | gastro, entero, logy |
| Knowing how a ---- breaks down and knowing the meaning of its elements make it far easier to pronounce a word, spell it, and remember its definition. | word |
| There are a few unfortunate exceptions for breaking down elements, however. | The path from original meaning to current usage has often become obscured by history |
| The foregoing approach also is no help with eponyms or ---- words composed of the first letter, or first few letters, of a series of words. | acronyms |
| For example, a common medical imaging method is the PET scan, an acronym for | positron emission tomography. |
| Note that ----- is a pronounceable word, hence a true acronym. | PET |
| Acronyms | are not to be confused with simple abbreviations or initialisms such as DNA and MRI, in which each letter must be pronounced separately. |
| The literal translation of a word doesn't always provide great insight into its modern meaning. | The history of language is full of twists and turns that are fascinating in their own right and say much about the history of human culture, but they can create confusion for students. |
| For example, the ----- is a transparent sac that forms around the developing fetus. | amnion |
| The word is derived from amnos, from the Greek for “lamb.” | amnion |
| From this origin, amnos came to mean a bowl for catching the blood of sacrificial ----, and from there the word found its way into biomedical usage for the membrane that emerges (quite bloody) as part of the afterbirth. | lambs |
| The -----, the socket of the hip joint, literally means “vinegar cup." | acetabulum |
| Apparently the hip socket reminded an anatomist of the little cups used to serve vinegar as a condiment on dining tables in ancient Rome. | acetabulum |
| The word testicles can be translated "little pots" or "little witnesses." | The history of medical language has several amusing conjectures as to why this word was chosen to name the male gonads. |
| A point of ----- for many beginning students is how to recognize the plural forms of medical terms. | confusion |
| Ovaries | Pluarl for Ovary |
| Cortices | Plural for Cortex |
| Corpus | Plural for Corpora |
| Ganglia | Plural for Ganglion |
| axilla, axillae | singular: -a, plural: -ae |
| lumen, lumina | singular: -en, plural: -ina |
| cortex, cortices | singular: -ex, plural: -ices |
| diagnosis, diagnoses | singular: -is, pluarl: -es |
| epididymis, epididymides | singular: -is, plural: -ides |
| appendix, appendices | singular: -ix, plural: -ices |
| carcinoma, carcinomata | singular: -ma, plural: mata |
| ganglion, ganglia | singular: -on, plural: -a |
| septum, septa | singular: um, plural: -a |
| viscus, viscera | singular: us, plural: -era |
| villus, villi | singular: us, plural: -i |
| corpus, corpora | singular: us, plural: ora |
| phalanx, phalanges | singular: x, plural: -ges |
| ovary, ovaries | singular: y, plural: -ies |
| calyx, calyces | singular: -yx, plural: -yces |
| In some cases, what appears to the beginner to be two completely different words may be only the noun and adjective forms of the same word | For example, brachium denotes the arm, and brachii (as in the muscle name biceps brachii) means "of the arm." |
| For example, brachium denotes the arm | and brachii (as in the muscle name biceps brachii) means "of the arm." |
| Carpus denotes the wrist | and carpi, a word used in several muscle names, means "of the wrist." |
| Adjectives can also take different forms for the singular and plural and for different degrees of comparison. | The digits are the fingers and toes. |
| The word digiti in a muscle name means "of a single finger (or toe) | whereas digitorum is the plural, meaning "of multiple fingers (or toes)." |
| Thus, the extensor digiti minimi muscle extends only the little finger | whereas the extensor digitorum muscle extends all fingers except the thumb |
| The English words large, larger, and largest are examples of the positive, comparative, and superlative degrees of comparison | In Latin, these are magnus, major (from maior), and maximus |
| We find these in the muscle names adductor magnus (a large muscle of the thigh), the pectoralis major (the larger of two pectoral muscles of the chest), and gluteus maximus (the largest of the three gluteal muscles of the buttock). | Comparative |
| Some noun variations indicate the possessive | such as the rectus abdominis, a straight (rectus) muscle of the abdomen (abdominis, “of the abdomen”), and the erector spinae, a muscle that straightens (erector) the spinal column (spinae, “of the spine"). |
| such as the rectus abdominis | a straight (rectus) muscle of the abdomen (abdominis, “of the abdomen”) |
| and the erector spinae, a muscle that | straightens (erector) the spinal column (spinae, “of the spine"). |
| Anatomical terminology also frequently follows the Greek and Latin practice of placing the adjective after the noun. | Thus, we have such names as the stratum lucidum for a clear (lucidum) layer (stratum) of the epidermis, the foramen magnum for a large (magnum) hole (foramen) in the skull, and the aforementioned pectoralis major muscle of the chest. |
| Clear | (lucidum) |
| Layer | (stratum) |
| magnum | (large) |
| hole | (foramen) |
| This is not to say that you must be conversant in Latin or Greek grammar to proceed with your study of anatomy. | These few examples, however, may alert you to some patterns to watch for in the terminology you study and, ideally, will make your encounters with anatomical terminology less confusing. |
| Pronunciation | is another stumbling block for many beginning anatomy and physiology students. |
| A final word of advice for your study of ----: Be accurate in your spelling and use of terms. | anatomy and physiology |
| It may seem trivial if you misspell trapezius as trapezium, but in doing so, you would be changing the name of a | back muscle to the name of a wrist bone. |
| trapezius | back muscle |
| trapezium | wrist bone |
| Similarly, changing occipitalis to occipital or zygomaticus to zygomatic changes other | muscle names to bone names. |
| Malleus | the name of a middle-ear bone |
| Malleolous | bony protuberance of the ankle |
| And there is only a one-letter difference between ileum | (the final portion of the small intestine) |
| ilium | (part of the hip bone) |
| Gustation | Sense of Taste |
| Gestation | Pregnancy |
| The --- demand the utmost attention to detail and accuracy-people's lives may one day be in your hands. | health professions |
| The habit of carefulness must extend to your use of language as well | Many patients have died simply because of tragic written and oral miscommunication in the hospital. |
| Compared to this, it is hardly tragic if your instructor deducts a point or two for an error in spelling. | It should be considered a lesson learned about the importance of accuracy. |
| Explain why modern anatomical terminology is so heavily based on Greek and Latin. | This historical choice aids in avoiding misunderstandings in global scientific discourse. |
Created by:
Russells3709