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CHAPTER 1.4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| If any two theories have the broadest implications for understanding the human body, they are probably ---- | the cell theory and the theory of natural selection |
| No understanding of human form and function is complete without an understanding of our -----, of how natural selection adapted the body to its ancestral habitat. | evolutionary history |
| As an explanation of how species originate and change through time, natural selection was the brainchild of ---- (1809-82)— certainly the most influential biologist who ever lived. | Charles Darwin |
| His book, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection (1859), has been called "the book that shook the world." | Charles Darwin |
| In presenting the first well-supported theory of how ---- works, it not only caused the restructuring of all of biology but also profoundly changed the prevailing view of our origin, nature, and place in the universe. | evolution |
| In ----, Darwin directly addressed the issue of human evolution and emphasized features of anatomy and behavior that reveal our relationship to other animals. | The Descent of Man (1871) |
| Evolution | simply means change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms. |
| Examples include the evolution of bacterial resistance to ----, the appearance of new strains of the flu virus, and the emergence of new species of organisms. | antibiotics |
| Evolution | simply means change in the genetic composition of a population of organisms. |
| Examples include the --- of bacterial resistance to antibiotics, the appearance of new strains of the flu virus, and the emergence of new species of organisms. | Evolution |
| Evolution works largely through the principle of --- which states essentially this | natural selection |
| Some individuals within a species have hereditary advantages over their competitors-for example, better camouflage, disease resistance, or ability to attract mates-that enable them to produce more offspring. | natural selection |
| They pass these advantages on to their offspring, and such characteristics therefore become more and more common in successive generations. | natural selection |
| This brings about the genetic change in a population that constitutes evolution | natural selection |
| Natural forces that promote the reproductive success of some individuals more than others are called ---- | selection pressures |
| They include such things as climate, predators, disease, competition, and food. | selection pressures |
| Adaptations | are features of anatomy, physiology, and behavior that evolve in response to these selection pressures and enable an organism to cope with the challenges of its environment. |
| ---- could scarcely have predicted the overwhelming mass of genetic, molecular, fossil, and other evidence of human evolution that would accumulate in the twentieth century and further substantiate his theory. | Darwin |
| Modern methods | in molecular genetics, for example, reveal less difference between the DNA of chimpanzees and humans than there is between chimpanzees and gorillas. |
| Darwin | That is, a chimpanzee's closest living relative is not the gorilla—it is us, Homo sapiens. |
| Several aspects of our ---- make little sense without an awareness that the human body has a history | anatomy |
| Our ---- to other species is also important in choosing animals for biomedical research. | evolutionary relationship |
| If there were no issues of cost, availability, or ethics, we might test drugs on our close living relatives, the -----, before approving them for human use. | chimpanzees |
| Their genetics, anatomy, and physiology are most similar to ours, and their reactions to drugs therefore afford the best prediction of how the human body would react. | chimpanzees |
| On the other hand, if we had no kinship with any other species, the selection of a ---- would be arbitrary; we might as well use frogs or snails. In reality, we compromise. | test species |
| Rats and mice | are used extensively for research because they are fellow mammals with a physiology similar to ours, but they present fewer of the aforementioned issues than chimpanzees or other mammals do. |
| An animal species or strain selected for research on a particular problem is called a model-for example, a mouse model for --- | acute lymphocytic leukemia |
| One of the classic lines of evidence for evolution, debated even before Darwin was born, is ---- | vestigial organs |
| These structures are the remnants of organs that apparently were better developed and more functional in the ancestors of a species. | vestigal organs |
| They now serve little or no purpose or, in some cases, have been converted to new functions. | vestigal organs |
| Our bodies, for example, are covered with millions of hairs, each equipped with a useless little | arrector muscle |
| In other mammals, these muscles fluff the hair and conserve heat. | In humans, they merely produce goose bumps. |
| other mammals, they move the ears to receive sounds better or to flick off flies and other pests, but most people can't contract them at all. | As Darwin said, it makes no sense that humans would have such structures were it not for the fact that we came from ancestors in which they were functional. |
| We belong to an order of mammals called the ----, which also includes the monkeys and apes. | Primates |
| Some of our anatomical and physiological features can be traced to the earliest ----, which descended from certain squirrel-size, insect-eating, African mammals that took up life in the trees 55 to 60 million years ago. | Primates |
| This ---- habitat probably afforded greater safety from predators, less competition, and a rich food supply of leaves, fruit, insects, and lizards. | arboreal (treetop) |
| But the forest canopy is a challenging world, with dim and dappled sunlight, swaying branches, shifting shadows, and prey darting about in the dense foliage. | arboreal (treetop) |
| Any new feature that enabled arboreal animals to move about more easily in the treetops would have been strongly favored by ---- | natural selection |
| Thus, the shoulder became more mobile and enabled primates to reach out in any direction (even overhead, which few other mammals can do). | natural selection |
| The thumbs became fully -----they could cross the palm to touch the fingertips-and enabled primates to hold small objects and manipulate them more precisely than other mammals could. | opposable |
| made the hands prehensile1o-able to grasp objects by encircling them with the thumb and fingers (fig. 1.4). | Opposable thumbs |
| The --- is so important that it receives highest priority in the repair of hand injuries. If the thumb can be saved, the hand can be reasonably functional; if it is lost, hand functions are severely diminished. | thumb |
| Human Adaptations Shared with Other Primates | Some major aspects of primate evolution are the opposable thumb, prehensile hand, forward-facing eyes, and stereoscopic vision. In humans, the hand became refined for increasingly sophisticated manipulation of objects. |
| The eyes of primates moved to a more forward-facing position, which allowed for stereoscopic vision | (depth perception) |
| This adaptation provided better hand- eye coordination in catching and manipulating prey, with the added advantage of making it easier to judge distances accurately in leaping from tree to tree. | stereoscopic vision |
| ----, rare among mammals, is also a primate hallmark. | Color vision |
| Color vision | Primates eat mainly fruits and leaves |
| The ability to distinguish subtle shades of orange and red enables them to distinguish ripe, sugary fruits from unripe ones | Color vision |
| Distinguishing subtle shades of green helps them to differentiate between tender young leaves and tough, more toxic older foilage. | Color vision |
| mainly eat mainly fruit and leaves | Primates |
| The ----- to distinguish subtle shades of orange and red enables them to distinguish ripe, sugary fruits from unripe ones. | ability |
| Distinguishing subtle shades of green helps them to differentiate between tender young leaves and tough, more ---- | toxic older foliage. |
| Various ---- ripen at different times and in widely separated places in the tropical forest. | fruits |
| This requires a good --- of what will be available, when, and how to get there. | memory |
| Larger brains | might have evolved in response to the challenge of efficient food finding and, in turn, laid the foundation for more sophisticated social organization. |
| None of this is meant to imply that humans evolved from ---- —a common misconception about evolution that no biologist believes. | monkeys |
| Monkeys, apes, and humans do, however, share ---- | common ancestors |
| Our relationship is not like parent and child, but more like cousins who have the same grandparents. | Monkeys |
| Observations of monkeys and apes provide insight into how primates adapt to the ---- and therefore how certain human adaptations probably originated. | arboreal habitat |
| About 4 to 5 million years ago, parts of Africa became hotter and drier, and much of the forest was replaced by | savanna (grassland) |
| Some primates adapted to living on the savanna, but this was a dangerous place with more predators and less protection. | savanna (grassland) |
| Just as ---- stand briefly on their hind legs to look around for danger, so would these early ground dwellers. | squirrels and monkeys |
| Being able to ----not only helps an animal stay alert, but also frees the forelimbs for purposes other than walking. | stand up |
| Chimpanzees sometimes --- to carry food, infants, or weapons (sticks and rocks), and it is reasonable to suppose that our early ancestors did so too. | walk upright |
| These advantages are so great that they favored skeletal modifications that made bipedalism—standing and walking on two legs—easier. | Chimpanzees sometimes --- to carry food, infants, or weapons (sticks and rocks), and it is reasonable to suppose that our early ancestors did so too. |
| Fossil evidence indicates that bipedalism was firmly established more than ---- | 4 million years ago |
| The anatomy of the human pelvis, femur, knee, great toe, foot arches, spinal column, skull, arms, and many muscles became adapted for ------, as did many aspects of human family life and society. | 1,350 mL today |
| It must have become increasingly difficult for a fully developed, large-brained infant to pass through the ----- at birth | mother's pelvic outlet |
| This may explain why humans are born in a relatively immature, helpless state compared with other mammals, before their nervous systems have matured and the bones of the skull have fused. | large-brained infant |
| The helplessness of ----and their extended dependence on parental care may help to explain why humans have such exceptionally strong family ties. | human young |
| Most of the oldest bipedal primates are classified in the genus | Australopithecus (aus-TRAL-oh-PITH-eh-cus). |
| About -----, hominids appeared with taller stature, greater brain volumes, simple stone tools, and probably articulate speech. | 2.5 million years ago |
| These are the earliest members of the genus Homo. | hominids |
| By at least 1.8 million years ago, ---- migrated from Africa to parts of Asia. | Homo erectus |
| Anatomically modern -----, our own species, originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago and is the only surviving hominid species. | Homo sapiens |
| This brief account barely begins to explain how human anatomy, physiology, and behavior have been shaped by ancient selection pressures. | 200,000 years ago in Africa |
| Evolution | is the basis for comparative anatomy and physiology, which have been so fruitful for the understanding of human biology |
| If we weren't related to any other species, those sciences would be pointless. | comparative anatomy and physiology |
| The emerging science of ----- analyzes how human disease and dysfunctions can be traced to differences between the artificial environment in which we now live, and the prehistoric environment to which Homo sapiens was biologically adapted. | evolutionary medicine |
| For example, we can relate sleep and mood disorders to artificial lighting and night-shift work, and the rise of asthma to our modern obsession with -----. | sanitation |
| Other examples in this book will relate ---- to obesity, diabetes, low-back pain, skin cancer, and other health issues. | evolution |
| Define adaptation and selection pressure | Adaptation involves changes in organisms that enhance survival and reproduction in specific environments. Selection pressure refers to environmental factors that influence these changes by favoring certain traits. |
| Why is adaptation and selection pressure important in understanding human anatomy and physiology? | These concepts are crucial for understanding human anatomy and physiology as they explain how traits evolved in response to environmental challenges, shaping our biological functions and health. |
| Select any two human characteristics and explain how they might have originated in primate adaptations to an arboreal habitat | Human characteristics like opposable thumbs and stereoscopic vision likely originated from primate adaptations to arboreal habitats. |
| Select any two human characteristics and explain how they might have originated in primate adaptations to an arboreal habitat | Opposable thumbs allowed primates to grasp branches and manipulate objects, enhancing survival in trees. |
| Select any two human characteristics and explain how they might have originated in primate adaptations to an arboreal habitat | Stereoscopic vision improved depth perception, aiding in navigation and prey capture in complex forest environments. |
| Select two other human characteristics and explain how they might have resulted from later adaptation to a grassland habitat | The shift to a grassland habitat likely influenced the development of bipedalism and enhanced vision in humans. |
| Select two other human characteristics and explain how they might have resulted from later adaptation to a grassland habitat | Select two other human characteristics and explain how they might have resulted from later adaptation to a grassland habitat |
Created by:
Russells3709