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CHAPTER 1.2
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Medicine has progressed far more in the last 50 years in the ----- before that, but the field didn't spring up overnight. | 2500 |
| As early as 3000 years ago, physicians in ---- treated patients with herbal drugs, salts, physical therapy, and faith healing. | Mesopotamia and Egypt |
| The "father of medicine", however is usually considered to be the Greek physician | Hippocrates (c. 460-375 BCE) |
| He and his followers established a code of ethics for physicians, -----, which is still recited in modern form by graduating physicians at some medical schools. | Hippocratic Oath |
| Urged physicians to stop attributing disease to the activities of gods and demons and to seek natural causes, which could afford the only rational basis for therapy. | Hippocrates |
| Aristotle (384-322 BCE) | was one of the first philosophers to write about anatomy and physiology |
| He believed that diseases and other natural events could have either supernatural causes, which he called theologi, or natural ones, or natural ones, which he called phyisci and physilogi . | Aristotle (384-322 BCE) |
| We derive such terms as physician and physiology from | Phisiology |
| Until the ninteenth century, physicians called | "doctors of physic" |
| On the Parts of Animals | In his anatomy book, -----, Aristotle aimed to identify unifying themes in nature. |
| Aristotle (384-322 BCE) | He argued that complex structures are built from a smaller variety of a simple components |
| ----- of ancient Greece and Rome were largely limited in their practice to gynecology and obstetrics. | Female physicians |
| Metrodora (c. 200 BCE) | Among them, Greek physician ---- was perhaps the first woman to publish a medical textbook, the two-volume gynecological treatise On the Diseases and Cures of Women. |
| It was widely translated and used in ancient Greece and Rome and as late as 1597 CE in Europe | On the Diseases and Cures of Women |
| Cladius Galen (129-c. 200) | physician to the Roman gladiators, wrote the most influential medical textbook of the ancient era - a book worshipped to excess by medical professors for centuries to follow. |
| ----- dissection was banned in Galen's time because of some horrid excesses that preceded him, including public dissection of living enslaved and imprisoned individuals. | Cadaver |
| Aside from what he could learn by treating gladiators' wounds, --- was therefore limited to dissecting pigs,monkeys, and other animals | Galen |
| Because he wasn't permitted to dissect cadavers, he had to guess at much of human anatomy and made some incorrect deductions from animal dissections. | Cadaver |
| He described the human liver, for example, as having five fingerlike lobes because that's what he had seen in baboons. | Galen |
| Saw science as method of discovery, not a body of fact to be taken on faith. | Galen |
| He warned even his own books could be wrong and advised his followers to trust their own observations more than any book. Unfortunately, his advice wasn't needed. | Galen |
| For nearly 1,500 years, medical professors dogmatically taught what they read in -----, seldom daring to question the authority of these "ancient masters". | Aristotle and Galen |
| In the ----, the state of medical science varied greatly from one religious culture to another. | Middle Ages |
| Science was repressed in the ------ of Europe up until about the sixteenth century, although some of the most famous medical schools of Europe were founded during this era. | Christian Culture |
| Their professors, however, taught medicine properly as dogmatic commentary on Galen or Aristotle, not a field of original research. | Christian Culture |
| ----- were crude representations of the body intended more to decorate a page than to depict the body realistically. | Medieval medical illustrations |
| Some were ----- that showed which sign of the zodiac was thought to influence each organ of the body. | astrological charts |
| From such pseudoscience came from the word "----", Italian for "influence" | Influenza |
| Free inquiry was less inhibited in --- culture during the time. | Jewish and Muslim |
| Jewish physicians were the most esteemed Practioners of their art-and none more famous than Moses ben Mammon (1135-1405), known christiandom as | Maimondes |
| Born in Spain, he fled to Egypt at age 24 to escape antisemitic persecution. | Maimondes |
| There he served the rest of his life as physician to the court of the sulton | Saladin |
| A highly admired rabbi, ----- wrote voluminously on Jewish law and theology, but also wrote 10 influential medical books and numerous treatises on specific diseases. | Maimondes |
| Among muslims, probably the most high regarded medical scholar was Ibin Sina (980-1037), known in the West as ----, or "Galen of Islam". | Avicenna |
| He studied Galen and Aristotle, combined their findings with original discoveries, and questioned authority when the evidence demanded it. | Avicenna |
| Medicine in the --- soon became superior to European medicine. | Mideast |
| Avicenna's textbook, -----, was a leading authority in Europeon medical schools for over 500 years. | The Canon of Medicine |
| --- medicine had little influence on Western thought and practice until relatively recently; the medical arts evolved in China quite independently of European medicine. | Chinese |
| Modern western medicine began around the sixteenth century in the innovative minds of such people as the anatomist ---- and the physiooligst; | Andreas Vesalius; William Harvey |
| Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) | taught anatomy in Italy |
| In his time, Catholic Church relaxed its prohibition against cadaver dissection, in part to allow autopsies of suspicious death | Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) |
| Furthermore, the ---- created an environment more friendly to innovative scholarship. | Italian Renaissance |
| Dissection gradually found its way throughout | Europe |
| Dissection | was an unpleasant business, however, and most professors considered it beneath their dignity. |
| In those days before refrigeration, or embalming, the odor from the ---- was unbearable. | cadaver |
| Dissection | gradually found its way into the training of medical students through Europe. |
| It was an unpleasant business | however, and most professors considered it beneath their dignity |
| In those days before refrigeration or embalming, the odor from the decaying --- was unbearable. | cadaver |
| were a racing against decay | Dissections |
| Bleary | medical students fought the urge to vomit, lest they incur the wrath of an overbearing professor. |
| barber-surgeon | Professors typically sat in an elevated chair, the cathedra, reading dryly in Latin from Galen or Aristotle while a lower-ranking -----, removed putefying organs from the cadaver and held them up for the students to see. |
| Barbering and surgery | were considered to be "kindered arts of the knife"; today barber poles dates from the era, their red and white stripes, symbolizing blood and bandages. |
| Vesalius | broke with tradition by coming down from the cathedra and doing the dissections himself. |
| Vesalius | was quick to point out that much of the anatomy in Galen's books was wrong, and he was the first to publish accurate illustrations for teaching anatomy. |
| When others began to plagiarize them, Vesalius published the first atlas of anatomy, -------, in 1543. | De Humani Corporis Francis (On the Structure of the Human Body) |
| This book began a rich tradition of medical illustration that has been handed down to us through such milestones as ----- and the vividly illustrated atlases and textbooks today. | Gray's Anatomy (1856) |
| Preceded physiology and was a necessary foundation for it. | Anatomy |
| William Harvey | What Vesalius was to anatomy, the Englishman ---- was to physiology. |
| is remembered especially for his studies of blood circulation and a little book he published in 1628, known by its abbreviated title De Motu Cordis (On the Motion of the Heart). | William Harvey |
| ------- were the first Western scientists to realize that blood must circulate continuously around the body, from the heart to the other organs and back to the heart again. | William Harvey and Micheal Servetus (1511-53) |
| This flew in the face of ---- belief that the liver converted food to blood, the heart pumped blood through the veins to all other organs, and those organs consumed it. | Galen |
| Physicians wedded to the ideas of ---- ridiculed Harvey for his theory though we know he was correct. | Galen |
| Despite persecution and setbacks, ----- lived to ripe old age, served as physician to the Kings of England, and later did important work in embryology. | William Harvey |
| Most importantly, ---- contributions represent the birth of experimental physiology - the method that generated most of the information in the book. | William Harvey |
| Modern medicine also owes an enormous debt to those who extended the vision of ---- to the cellular level. | biologists |
| In 1609, ---- patented the compound microscope as a by-product of his work with telescopes. | Gallelio (1564-1642) |
| This was essentially a telescope for viewing very tiny objects - a tube with a lens at each end: an ---- near the specimen | objective lenses |
| This was essentially a telescope for viewing very tiny objects - a tube with a lens at each end: near the viewer's eye, which magnified the first image still further. | occular lens (eyepiece) |
| ---- never thought, however, to use it on biological material. | Galileo |
| The first to study cells with a compound microscope was Italian physician-biologist ---- who was among the first to observe blood cells and capillaries as well as capillary blood flow. | Marcello Malphigi (1628-94) |
| He published his descriptions in 1661 and is remembered as the father of histology (microscopic anatomy). | Marcello Malphigi (1628-94) |
| Englishman ----, who designed specific instruments of various kinds, improved the optics, and invented several of the helpful features found in microscopes today - a stage to hold the specimen, an illuminator, and coarse and fine focus controls. | Robert Hooke |
| His microscopes magnified only about 30 times, but with them, he was the first to see and name cells. | Robert Hooke |
| In 1663, he observed thin shavings of cork and observed that they "consisted of a great many little boxes", which he called ----, after the cubicles of a monestary. | cellulae (little cells) |
| He later observed living cells "filled with juices" | Robert Hooke |
| became particularly interested in microscopic examination of such material, as insects, plant tissues, and animal parts. | Robert Hooke |
| Robert Hooke published the first comprehensive book of microscopy, ---- in 1665 | Microphagia |
| Hooke's Compound Microscope | The compound microscope had a lens at each end of a tubular body. |
| Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) | a Dutch textile merchant, invented a simple (single-lens) microscope, originally for the purpose of examining the weave of fabrics. |
| Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) | His microscope was a beadlike lens mounted in a metal plate equipped with a moveable specimen clip. |
| Even though his microscopes were simpler than ----, they achieved much greater useful magnification (up to 200x) owing to Leeunwenhoek's superior lens-making technique. | Robert Hooke |
| Out of curiosity, he examined a drop of lake water and was astonished to find a variety of microorganisms - "little animalcules," he called them, "very prettily a-swimming". | Robert Hooke |
| He went on to observe practically everything he could get his hands on, including blood cells, blood capillaries, sperm, muscular tissue, and bacteria from tooth scrapings. | Robert Hooke |
| Leeunwenoek | began submitting his observations to the Royal Society of London 1673 |
| He was praised at first, and his observations were eagerly read by scientists, but enthusiasm for the microscope didn't last. | Leeunwenoek |
| By the end of the seventeenth century, it was treated as a mere toy for the upperclass, as amusing and meaningless as the kalaiedescope. | Telescope |
| had even become the brunt of satire. | Leeunwenhoek and Hooke |
| But probably no one in history had looked at nature in such revolutionary way | Leeunwenhoek and Hooke |
| By taking biology to the cellular level, the two men had laid an entirely new foundation for the modern medicine to follow centuries later | Leeunwenhoek and Hooke |
| The ------ microscopes produced poor images and with blurry edges (spherical aberration) rainbowlike distortions (chromatic aberration). | Leeunwenhoek and Hooke |
| These problems had to be solved before the microscope could be widely used as a biological tool. | blurry edges (spherical aberration) rainbowlike distortions (chromatic aberration) |
| In the nineteenth century, ----- greatly improved the compound microscope, adding the condenser and developing superior optics. | German inventors |
| With -----, biologists began eagerly examining a wider variety of specimens. | improved microscopes |
| By 1839, botanist --- and zoologist ---- concluded that all organisms were composed of cells. | Matthias Schleiden (1804-81) and Thedor Schwann (1810-82) |
| Organisms were composed of cells | Although it took another century for this idea to be generally accepted, it became the first tenet of the cell theory, added by later biologists. |
| Cell Theory | was perhaps the most important breakthrough in biomedical history; all functions of the body are now interpreted as effects of cellular activity. |
| Although the philosophical foundation for modern medicine was largely established by the time of ------, clinical practice was still at a dismal state. | Leeuwenhoek, Hooke, and Harvey |
| Few doctors attended ----- or received any formal education in basic science or human anatomy. | medical school |
| tended to be ignorant, ineffective, and pompous | Physicians |
| Their practice was heavily based on expelling ---- from the body by bleeding their patients or inducing vomiting, sweating, or diarrhea | imaginary toxins |
| They performed operations with filthy hands and instruments, spreading lethal infections from one patient to another and refusing, in their vanity, to believe that they themselves were the carriers of disease. | Physicians |
| Countless women died of infections acquired during childbirths from their | obstericians |
| Fractured limbs often became ---- and had to be amputated, and there was no anesthesia to lessen the pain. | gangrenous |
| ---- was still widely attributed to demons and witches, and many people felt they would be interfering with God's will if they tried to treat it. | Disease |
| This short history brings us only to the threshold of modern ------; it stops short of such momentous discoveries as the germ theory of disease, the mechanisms of heredity, and the structure of DNA. | biomedical science |
| In the ----, basic biology and biochemistry yielded a much deeper understanding of how the body works. | twentieth century |
| twentieth century | Advances in medical imaging enhanced our diagnostic ability and life-support strategies. We witnessed monumental developments in chemotherapy, immunization, anesthesia, surgery, organ transplants, and human genetics. |
| By the close of the twentieth century, we had discovered the chemical “------" of every human gene and begun attempting gene therapy to treat children born with diseases recently considered incurable. | base sequence |
| As future historians look back on our present era, they may exult (talk about excitedly) about the ------ in which you are now living. | Genetic Revolution |
| In what way did the followers of Galen disregard his advice? | Galen advised against blind adherence to authority, encouraging critical thinking and observation. His followers, however, often revered his work without question, stifling progress. |
| How does Galen's advice apply apply to you and this book? | For you, this means engaging with the material actively, questioning assumptions, and seeking evidence. |
| Vesalius revolutionized medical education by emphasizing direct observation and dissection, akin to learning to play an instrument by practicing rather than just reading music. | Describe two ways in which Vesalius improved medical education and set standards that remain relevant today. |
| He published "De humani corporis fabrica," a detailed anatomical text with precise illustrations, setting a new standard for accuracy and teaching methods. | Describe two ways in which Vesalius improved medical education and set standards that remain relevant today. |
| How is our concept of human form and function today affected by inventors from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries? | Inventors from the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries revolutionized our understanding of human anatomy and physiology by replacing superstitions with scientific inquiry. |
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