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Anatomy Final
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Which component of blood is primarily responsible for transporting oxygen throughout the body? | Red blood cells containing hemoglobin |
| What is the average lifespan of a red blood cell in circulation? | Approximately 120 days |
| Which hormone is released in response to low blood oxygen levels to stimulate red blood cell production? | Erythropoietin |
| Which type of white blood cell is the most abundant in circulation and is a strong phagocyte? | Neutrophil |
| What process allows white blood cells to exit the bloodstream and enter damaged tissues? | Diapedesis |
| What is the primary role of platelets in the blood? | Initiate and support hemostasis |
| Which plasma protein is directly converted into fibrin during blood clot formation? | Fibrinogen |
| Why is type O blood considered the universal donor for red blood cell transfusions? | It lacks A and B antigens on red blood cell membranes |
| Erythroblastosis fetalis most commonly occurs due to which condition, and how is it prevented? | Rh incompatibility; prevented by administering RhoGAM to the mother |
| Temporary constriction of a damaged blood vessel | Vasospasm |
| Mass of platelets adhering to a damaged vessel wall | Platelet Plug |
| Abnormally formed clot that remains attached to a vessel wall | Thrombus |
| Clot that travels through the bloodstream | Embolus |
| The process that stops bleeding after vessel injury | Hemostasis |
| Which statement best describes the primary function of the cardiovascular system? | Transporting oxygen, nutrients, and wastes throughout the body |
| Blood returning from the systemic circulation enters the heart through the | Superior and inferior venae cavae |
| Which heart chamber has the thickest muscular wall, and why? | Left ventricle, because it pumps blood to the entire body |
| The chordae tendineae and papillary muscles function to: | Prevent backflow through atrioventricular valves |
| Place the following structures in the correct order of blood flow through the heart: | 3 → 2 → lungs → 4 → 1 |
| During a normal ECG, the QRS complex represents | Ventricular depolarization |
| Which blood vessel type is best suited for exchange of gases and nutrients, and why? | Capillaries, due to thin endothelial walls |
| At the arteriolar end of a capillary, fluid movement is primarily driven by: | Hydrostatic pressure pushing fluid outward |
| Which formula correctly represents arterial blood pressure regulation? | BP = cardiac output × peripheral resistance |
| The cerebral arterial circle (Circle of Willis) is clinically important because it | Provides alternate routes of blood flow to the brain |
| Which statement best describes the primary role of the lymphatic system in fluid balance? | Collecting excess interstitial fluid and returning it to the venous circulation |
| Lymphatic capillaries differ from blood capillaries in that lymphatic capillaries: | Are closed-ended and permit entry of interstitial fluid through overlapping endothelial cells |
| Which factor contributes most directly to the movement of lymph through lymphatic vessels? | Skeletal muscle contraction and one-way valves |
| Edema most directly results from: | Obstruction or removal of lymphatic vessels |
| Which structure filters blood rather than lymph? | Spleen |
| Which event is characteristic of inflammation? | Dilation of blood vessels and increased capillary permeability |
| Natural killer (NK) cells primarily function to: | Destroy virus-infected and cancerous cells using perforins |
| Activation of T cells requires: | Antigen presentation with MHC proteins on an antigen-presenting cell |
| Which antibody is most closely associated with allergic reactions? | IgE |
| Which scenario represents artificially acquired passive immunity? | Injection of gamma globulins containing antibodies |
| Which component of a microorganism refers to its ability to cause disease? | Pathogenicity |
| Which statement best explains why antibiotics are ineffective against viral infections? | Viruses require host cells to reproduce |
| Which sequence correctly represents the chain of infection? | Agent → Reservoir → Portal of Exit → Mode of Transmission → Portal of Entry → Host |
| Which intervention most directly interrupts the chain of infection between modes of transmission and portal of entry? | Proper hand hygiene between patients |
| A patient develops a bloodstream infection originating from a urinary tract infection. This is best classified as: | A systemic infection |
| Which stage of the infectious process is characterized by vague, nonspecific symptoms such as fatigue or mild discomfort? | Prodromal |
| Which scenario best represents a nosocomial (healthcare-associated) infection? | A surgical site infection developing after discharge |
| Which pathogen is obligately intracellular and commonly transmitted by arthropods? | Rickettsia |
| Which principle best defines standard precautions? | Assumes all blood and body fluids are potentially infectious |
| Which of the following is a primary goal of isolation precautions? | Prevent transmission of specific pathogens |
| Which feature of the digestive tract is primarily responsible for moving food from the mouth to the stomach? | Peristalsis |
| Which secretion protects the stomach lining from digesting itself (autodigestion) | Mucus |
| Which statement best describes mechanical digestion? | The physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces without changing chemical composition |
| The alimentary canal is best described as: | A muscular tube extending from the mouth to the anus |
| Which layer of the alimentary canal wall is primarily responsible for propulsion of food? | Muscularis |
| Which structure of the mouth provides friction to help move food during chewing? | Papillae |
| Salivary amylase begins the digestion of | Carbohydrates (starches) |
| Which gastric cell type secretes intrinsic Hydrochloric Acid? | Parietal cells |
| Bile salts assist digestion primarily by: | Emulsifying fats to increase surface area |
| Which structure absorbs fats in the small intestine? | Lacteals within villi |
| Which statement best describes the primary purpose of the respiratory system? | To obtain oxygen and remove carbon dioxide |
| Cellular respiration differs from external respiration because cellular respiration occurs in the: | Mitochondria |
| Which structure increases surface area to warm, filter, and humidify incoming air? | Nasal conchae |
| Which structure serves as a shared passageway for both air and food? | Pharynx |
| Which cartilage prevents food from entering the larynx during swallowing? | Epiglottic cartilage |
| Which structural change allows bronchioles to constrict and dilate? | Increased smooth muscle |
| Normal inspiration occurs because thoracic volume increases and lung pressure... | Decreases below atmospheric pressure |
| What substance prevents alveoli from collapsing due to surface tension? | Surfactant |
| Which factor is the primary stimulus for changes in breathing rate under normal conditions? | Carbon dioxide concentration |
| The majority of carbon dioxide in the blood is transported as | Bicarbonate ions |
| The primary function of the urinary system is to remove wastes while maintaining electrolyte, water, and pH balance. Which process directly accomplishes waste removal from the blood? | Glomerular filtration |
| The kidneys are described as retroperitoneal organs. What does this mean anatomically? | They lie behind the parietal peritoneum |
| The renal cortex appears granular because it contains which structure? | Renal corpuscles |
| Which structure is considered the functional unit of the kidney? | Renal corpuscles |
| Which hormone secreted by the kidneys directly stimulates red blood cell production? | Renin |
| Which vessel delivers blood into the glomerulus for filtration? | Afferent arteriole |
| Which nephron type is primarily responsible for producing concentrated urine? | Juxtamedullary nephron |
| The juxtaglomerular apparatus helps regulate blood pressure by secreting which enzyme? | Renin |
| Most tubular reabsorption occurs in which portion of the nephron? | Proximal convoluted tubule |
| During micturition, which sphincter allows voluntary control of urination? | External urethral sphincter |
| Water moves across cell membranes primarily due to differences in: | Solute concentration |
| Which electrolyte makes up the majority of extracellular positive ions? | Sodium |
| The intracellular fluid compartment contains approximately what percentage of total body water? | 63% |
| Thirst is primarily stimulated by: | Increased osmotic pressure of extracellular fluid |
| ADH increases water reabsorption by: | Decreasing kidney filtration |
| Dehydration causes water to move out of cells because extracellular fluid becomes: | Hypotonic |
| Which hormone increases calcium levels in extracellular fluid? | Aldosterone |
| The first line of defense against sudden pH changes is: | Chemical buffer systems |
| Respiratory acidosis is caused by: | Increased carbon dioxide levels |
| Metabolic alkalosis results from: | Loss of hydrogen ions or gain of bases |
| Which structure is the correct site where sperm gain motility and the ability to fertilize an egg? | Epididymis |
| Why are the testes located outside the body cavity in the scrotum? | To maintain a temperature lower than core body temperature |
| Which cell type produces testosterone in the testes? | Interstitial (Leydig) cells |
| Which event directly triggers ovulation in the female reproductive cycle? | A surge in luteinizing hormone (LH) |
| Which statement best describes the chromosomal outcome of spermatogenesis? | One primary spermatocyte produces four haploid sperm |
| What is the primary role of Sertoli (sustentacular) cells? | Support, nourishment, and regulation of spermatogenic cells |
| Which substance in seminal fluid provides energy directly to sperm cells? | Fructose |
| Why does oogenesis produce polar bodies while spermatogenesis does not? | To preserve cytoplasm in the ovum |
| Which hormone directly inhibits FSH release through negative feedback in males? | Inhibin |
| Which statement best explains why many sexually transmitted infections are particularly dangerous in females? | Many infections are asymptomatic and go unnoticed |
| Which statement best distinguishes growth from development? | Growth refers to increase in size and cell number, while development includes aging and lifelong change |
| Fertilization normally occurs in the | Fallopian tube |
| Which factor directly helps sperm reach the egg by stimulating uterine contractions? | Prostaglandins |
| The zona pellucida prevents polyspermy by: | Hardening after the first sperm enters |
| Which structure gives rise to the embryo proper? | Inner cell mass |
| Which germ layer gives rise to muscle, bone, blood, and kidneys? | Mesoderm |
| Which structure allows fetal blood to bypass the liver? | Ductus venosus |
| Which hormone maintains the corpus luteum during early pregnancy? | Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) |
| Which event demonstrates a positive feedback mechanism during labor? | Oxytocin release increasing uterine contraction |
| Why are X-linked recessive traits more commonly expressed in males? | Males have only one X chromosome |
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