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CHAPTER A
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| In describing the human body, anatomists assume that it is in anatomical position | (fig. A.1)—that is, standing upright with the feet flat on the floor, arms at the sides, and the palms and face directed forward. |
| Without such a frame of reference, to say that a structure such as the sternum, thyroid gland, or aorta is "above the heart" would be vague, since it would depend on whether the subject was standing, | lying face down (prone), or lying face up (supine) |
| From the perspective of anatomical position, however, we can describe the | thyroid as superior to the heart, the sternum as anterior to it, and the aorta as posterior to it. |
| These descriptions remain valid regardless of the subject's position. | Even if the body is lying down, to say the sternum is anterior to the heart invites the viewer to imagine the body is standing in anatomical position and not to call it “above the heart" simply because that is the way the body happens to be lying. |
| A ---- plane is a vertical plane that divides the body into left and right halves. | sagittal |
| A ---- plane is a vertical plane that sections through the woman from left to right and divided the body into front and back halves. | frontal |
| A ---- plane is a horizontal plane that sections through the waist area. | transverse |
| Unless stated otherwise, assume that all anatomical descriptions refer to ----- | anatomical position |
| Bear in mind that if a subject is ------, the subject's left is on your right and vice versa. | facing you |
| In most ------, for example, the left atrium of the heart appears toward the right side of the page, and although the appendix is located in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen, it appears on the left side of most illustrations. | anatomical illustrations |
| Many views of the body are based on real or imaginary "----" called sections or planes | slices |
| Section | implies an actual cut or slice to reveal internal anatomy, whereas plane implies an imaginary flat surface passing through the body. |
| The three primary anatomical planes are | sagittal, frontal, and transverse |
| A ---- passes vertically through the body or an organ and divides it into right and left portions | sagittal plane |
| The sagittal plane that divides the body or organ into equal halves is also called the | median (midsagittal) plane |
| The head and pelvic organs are commonly illustrated on the | median plane |
| Other sagittal planes parallel to this (off center) divide the body into | unequal portions |
| Such planes are sometimes called parasagittal planes. | Other sagittal planes parallel to this (off center) divide the body into unequal portions |
| A frontal (coronal) plane also extends vertically, but it is perpendicular to the sagittal plane | and divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions |
| A ------ of the head, for example, divides it into one portion bearing the face and another bearing the back of the head. | frontal section |
| Contents of the thoracic and abdominal cavities are usually shown as | frontal sections |
| A transverse (horizontal) plane passes across the body or an organ perpendicular to its long axis; | it divides the body or organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions |
| CT scans are typically | transverse sections |
| Words that describe the location of one structure relative to another are called the ----- of anatomy. | directional terms |
| anterior versus | posterior |
| rostral versus | caudal |
| superior versus | inferior |
| medial versus | lateral |
| proximal versus | distal |
| ipsilateral versus | contralateral |
| superficial versus | deep |
| Intermediate directions are often indicated by combinations of these terms | For example, one's cheeks may be described as inferolateral to the eyes (below and to the side). |
| Ventral - Toward the front* or belly | The aorta is --- to the vertebral column |
| Dorsal - Toward the back or spine | The vertebral column is dorsal to the aorta |
| Anterior - Toward the ventral side* | The sternum is anterior to the heart |
| Posterior - Toward the dorsal side* | The esophagus is posterior to the trachea |
| Cephalic - Toward the head or superior end | The brain develops from the cephalic end of the neural tube |
| Rostral - Toward the forehead or nose | The forebrain is rostral to the brainstem |
| Caudral - Toward the tail or inferior end | The spinal cord is caudral to the brain |
| Superior - Above | The heart is superior to the diaphragm |
| Inferior - Below | The liver is inferior to the diaphragm |
| Medial - Toward the median plane | The heart is medial to the lungs |
| Lateral - Away from the median plane | The eyes are lateral to the nose. |
| Proximal - Closer to the point of attachment or origin | The elbow is proximal to the wrist |
| Distal - Farther from the point of attachment or origin | The fingernails are at the distal ends of the fingers. |
| Ipsilateral - On the same side of the body (right or left) | The liver is ipsilateral to the appendix. |
| Contralateral - On opposites sides of the body (right and left) | The spleen is contralateral to the liver. |
| Superficial - Closer to the body surface | The skin is superficial to the muscles |
| Deep - Farther from the body surface | The bones are deep to the muscles |
| The terms proximal and distal are used especially in the anatomy of the limbs, | with proximal used to denote something relatively close to the limb's point of attachment (the shoulder or hip) and distal to denote something farther away. |
| Directional terms | These terms do have some applications to anatomy of the trunk, however-for example, in referring to certain aspects of the intestines and microscopic anatomy of the kidneys. |
| But when describing the trunk and referring to a structure that lies above or below another, superior and inferior are the preferred terms. | These terms aren't usually used for the limbs. |
| Although it may be technically correct, one wouldn't generally say the elbow is superior to the wrist | but proximal to it. |
| Because of the bipedal, upright stance of humans, some directional terms have different meanings for humans than they do for other animals. | Anterior, for example, denotes the region of the body that leads the way in normal locomotion. |
| For a four-legged animal such as a cat, this is the head end of the body; for a human, however, it is the front of the chest and abdomen. | Thus, anterior has the same meaning as ventral for a human but not for a cat. |
| Posterior | denotes the region of the body that comes last in normal locomotion-the tail end of a cat but the dorsal side (back) of a human. In the anatomy of most other animals |
| In the anatomy of most other animals | ventral denotes the surface of the body closest to the ground |
| In the anatomy of most other animals | dorsal denotes the surface farthest away from the ground |
| These two words are too entrenched in human anatomy to completely ignore them, but we will minimize their use in this book to avoid confusion. | ventral and dorsal |
| You must keep such differences in mind, however, when dissecting other animals for comparison to human anatomy. | word differences |
| A derivative of the term dorsal is ----, used to denote the upper surface of the foot and the back of the hand. | dorsum |
| If you consider how a cat stands, the corresponding surfaces of its paws are uppermost, facing the same direction as the -----side of its trunk. | dorsal |
| Although these surfaces of the human hand and foot face entirely different directions in anatomical position, the term --- is still used. | dorsum |
| Knowledge of the external anatomy and landmarks of the body is important in performing a physical examination and many other clinical procedures. | For purposes of study, the body is divided into two major regions called the axial and appendicular regions. Smaller areas within the major regions are described in the following paragraphs and illustrated in |
| Axillary | Armpit |
| Brachial | Upper Arm |
| Cubital | Elbow |
| Antebrachial | Forearm (Lower Arm) |
| Carpal | Wrist |
| Palmar | Palm |
| Coxal | Hip |
| Patellar | Kneecap |
| Cephalic | Head |
| Facial | Face |
| Cervical | Neck |
| Thoracic | Chest |
| Sternal | Sternum/Breastbone |
| Pectoral | Chest/Breast |
| Umbilical | Belly button |
| Abdominal | Abdomen, stomach area |
| Inguinal | Groin |
| Thigh | Femoral |
| Crural | Front of the lower leg |
| Tarsal | Ankle |
| Plantar | Sole of the Foot |
| Cranial | Skull or Head |
| Nuchal | Back of the neck |
| Interscapular | Between the shoulder blades/Upperback |
| Scapular | Shoulder Blade |
| Vertebral | Spine/Backbone |
| Lumbar | Lower back |
| Sacral | Tailbone |
| Gluteal | Butt |
| Perineal | area between the anus and the external genitalia. |
| Femoral | Thigh |
| Popliteal | Back of the knee |
| Crural | Back of the lower leg |
| Calcaneal | Heel |
| Anterior | Ventral |
| Posterior | Dorsal |
| The axial region consists of the | head, neck (cervical region), and trunk |
| Axial Region: ----, neck (cervical region), and trunk | head |
| Axial Region: head, -----, and trunk | neck (cervical region) |
| head, neck (cervical region), and --- | trunk |
| The trunk is further divided into the thoracic region above the ---- and the abdominal region below it. | diaphragm |
| The trunk is further divided into the thoracic region above the diaphragm and the ---- region below it. | abdominal |
| One way of referring to the locations of abdominal structures is to divide the region into ---- | quadrants |
| Two perpendicular lines intersecting at the umbilicus (navel) divide the abdomen into a | right upper quadrant (RUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ) |
| ------:left upper quadrant (LUQ) right lower quadrant (RLQ) : left lower quadrant (LLQ) | right upper quadrant (RUQ) |
| right upper quadrant (RUQ): ----- right lower quadrant (RLQ) : left lower quadrant (LLQ) | left upper quadrant (LUQ) |
| right upper quadrant (RUQ):left upper quadrant (LUQ) ------ : left lower quadrant (LLQ) | right lower quadrant (RLQ) |
| right upper quadrant (RUQ):left upper quadrant (LUQ) right lower quadrant (RLQ) : ----- | left lower quadrant (LLQ) |
| ----- | Epigastric region | Left hypochondriac region Right lumbar region | Umbilical region | Left lumbar region Right inguinal region | Hypogastric region |Left inguinal region | Right hypochondriac region |
| Right hypochondriac region |--- | Left hypochondriac region Right lumbar region | Umbilical region | Left lumbar region Right inguinal region | Hypogastric region |Left inguinal region | Epigastric region |
| Right hypochondriac region | Epigastric region | ---- Right lumbar region | Umbilical region | Left lumbar region Right inguinal region | Hypogastric region |Left inguinal region | Left hypochondriac region |
| Right hypochondriac region | Epigastric region | Lhr ----- | Umbilical region | Left lumbar region Right inguinal region | Hypogastric region |Left inguinal region | Right lumbar region |
| Right hypochondriac region| Epigastric region | Lhr Right lumbar region | ---- | Left lumbar region Right inguinal region | Hypogastric region |Left inguinal region | Umbilical region |
| Right hypochondriac region | Epigastric region | Lhr Right lumbar region | Umbilical region | --- Right inguinal region | Hypogastric region |Left inguinal region | Left lumbar region |
| Right hypochondriac region | Epigastric region | Lhr Right lumbar region | Umbilical region | Left lumbar region ----| Hypogastric region |Left inguinal region | Right inguinal region |
| Right hypochondriac region | Epigastric region | Lhr Right inguinal region | ---- |Left inguinal region Right lumbar region | Umbilical region | Left lumbar region | Hypogastric region |
| Right hypochondriac region | Epigastric region | Lhr Right inguinal region | Hypogastric region | ----- Right lumbar region | Umbilical region | Left lumbar region | Left inguinal region |
| Right hypochondriac region | Epigastric region | Lhr Right inguinal region | Hypogastric region | Left inguinal region ---- | Umbilical region | Left lumbar region | Right lumbar region |
| Right hypochondriac region | Epigastric region | Lhr Right inguinal region | Hypogastric region | Left inguinal region Right lumbar region | ----- | Left lumbar region | Umbilical region |
| Right hypochondriac region | Epigastric region | Lhr Right inguinal region | Hypogastric region | Left inguinal region Right lumbar region | Umbilical region | ------ | Left lumbar region |
| In what quadrant would the pain of appendicitis usually be felt? | Right lower quadrant (RLQ) |
| The abdomen also can be divided into nine regions defined by four lines that intersect like a tic-tac-toe grid | Each vertical line is called a midclavicular line because it passes through the midpoint of the clavicle (collarbone). |
| The superior horizontal line is called the ---- line because it connects the inferior borders of the lowest costal cartilages (cartilage connecting the tenth rib on each side to the inferior end of the sternum). | subcostal |
| The inferior horizontal line is called the -----because it passes from left to right between the tubercles (anterior superior spines) of the pelvis-two points of bone located about where the front pockets open on most pants. | intertubercular line |
| The inferior horizontal line is called the intertubercular line because it passes from left to right between the tubercles (-----) of the pelvis-two points of bone located about where the front pockets open on most pants. | anterior superior spines |
| The three lateral regions of this grid, from upper to lower, are the ----, lumbar, and inguinal’ (iliac) regions | hypochondriac |
| The three lateral regions of this grid, from upper to lower, are the hypochondriac, -----, and inguinal’ (iliac) regions | lumbar |
| The three lateral regions of this grid, from upper to lower, are the hypochondriac, lumbar, and ----- | inguinal’ (iliac) regions |
| The three medial regions from upper to lower are the ----, umbilical, and hypogastric (pubic) regions. | epigastric |
| The three medial regions from upper to lower are the epigastric, -----, and hypogastric (pubic) regions. | umbilical |
| The three medial regions from upper to lower are the epigastric, umbilical, and ---- | hypogastric (pubic) regions |
| The appendicular region | of the body consists of the upper and lower limbs (also called appendages or extremities) |
| The upper limb includes the | arm (brachial region), forearm (antebrachial region), wrist (carpal region), hand, and fingers (digits) |
| arm (brachial region) | Upper limb: ----, forearm (antebrachial region), wrist (carpal region), hand, and fingers (digits) |
| forearm (antebrachial region) | Upper limb: arm (brachial region), -------, wrist (carpal region), hand, and fingers (digits) |
| wrist (carpal region) | Upper limb: arm (brachial region), forearm (antebrachial region), -----, hand, and fingers (digits) |
| hand | arm (brachial region), forearm (antebrachial region), wrist (carpal region), -----, and fingers (digits) |
| fingers (digits) | arm (brachial region), forearm (antebrachial region), wrist (carpal region), hand, and |
| The lower limb includes the | thigh (femoral region), leg (crural region) (CROO-rul), ankle (tarsal region), foot, and toes (digits) |
| thigh (femoral region) | lower limb: -------, leg (crural region) (CROO-rul), ankle (tarsal region), foot, and toes (digits) |
| leg (crural region) (CROO-rul) | lower limb: thigh (femoral region), -----, ankle (tarsal region), foot, and toes (digits) |
| ankle (tarsal region) | lower limb: thigh (femoral region), leg (crural region) (CROO-rul), ------, foot, and toes (digits) |
| foot | lower limb: thigh (femoral region), leg (crural region) (CROO-rul), ankle (tarsal region), ----, and toes (digits) |
| toes (digits) | lower limb: thigh (femoral region), leg (crural region) (CROO-rul), ankle (tarsal region), foot, and ----- |
| In strict anatomical terms, ---- refers only to that part of the upper limb between the shoulder and elbow | arm |
| Leg | refers only to that part of the lower limb between the knee and ankle. |
| A ----- of a limb is a region between one joint and the next. | segment |
| The ----, for example, is the segment between the shoulder and elbow, | arm |
| and the --is the segment between the elbow and wrist. | forearm |
| Flexing your fingers, you can easily see that your thumb has two segments | (proximal and distal) |
| whereas the other four digits have three segments | (proximal, middle, and distal) |
| The ---- concept is especially useful in describing the locations of bones and muscles and the movements of the joints. | segment |
| The body wall encloses multiple body cavities | each lined with a membrane and containing internal organs called viscera |
| Some of these membranes are two-layered, having one layer against the organ surface (such as the heart or lung) and one layer against a surrounding structure (forming, for example, the inner lining of the rib cage) | there is only a thin film of liquid between them. |
| In such cases, the inner layer, against the organ, is called the visceral layer of the membrane | , and the more superficial or outer one, the parietal l layer |
| Cranial Cavity | Brain; Meninges |
| Vertebral canal | Spinal cord; Meninges |
| Thoracic Cavities | Pleural (Lungs) & Pericardial (Heart) |
| Pleural Cavities (There's Two) | Lungs; Pleurae |
| Pericardial Cavity | Heart; Pericardium |
| Abdominopelvic Cavities | Abdominal cavity; Pelvic cavity |
| Abdominal Cavity | Digestive organs, spleens, kidneys; Peritoneum |
| Pelvic Cavity | Urinary bladder, rectum, reproductive organs; Peritoneum |
| Mediastinum | Chest area |
| The ----- is enclosed by the cranium (braincase) and contains the brain. | cranial cavity |
| The vertebral canal is enclosed by the vertebral column (spine) and contains the | spinal cord |
| The two are continuous with each other and are lined by three membrane layers called the ---- | meninges |
| Among other functions, the meninges protect the delicate ---- from the hard protective bone that encloses it. | nervous tissue |
| The trunk of your body contains two major spaces, the thoracic cavity and abdominopelvic cavity, separated by a transverse muscular sheet, the -----. | diaphragm |
| Superior to the diaphragm, in your chest, is the thoracic cavity | and inferior to it, in your abdomen, is the abdominopelvic cavity |
| Both cavities are lined with thin serous membranes, which secrete a lubricating film of moisture similar to ---- | blood serum (hence their name) |
| The thoracic cavity is divided by a thick median wall called the | mediastinum |
| This is the region between the lungs, extending from the base of the neck to the diaphragm. | mediastinum |
| It is occupied by the heart, the major blood vessels connected to it, the esophagus, the trachea and bronchi, and a gland called the thymus. | mediastinum |
| The heart is enfolded in a two-layered membrane called the -----. | pericardium |
| The inner layer of the pericardium forms the surface of the heart itself and is called the | visceral layer |
| The outer layer is called the | parietal layer |
| These layers are separated by a space called the pericardial layer | visceral layer; parietal layer |
| The Pericardial Layer | is lubricated by pericardial fluid |
| The Pericardial Layer | This space allows the heart freedom of movement during its contraction and relaxation, but can pose a life-threatening problem if it fills with serous fluid or blood |
| Being confined by the ---- can cause a problem for the heart under some circumstances. | pericardium |
| If a heart wall weakened by disease should rupture, or if it suffers a penetrating injury such as a knife or gunshot wound, blood spurts from the heart into the ------, filling the cavity more and more with each heartbeat. | pericardial cavity |
| Diseased hearts also sometimes seep serous fluid into the | pericardial sac |
| The pericardial sac has little room to expand, so the accumulating fluid puts pressure on the heart, squeezing it and preventing it from refilling between beats. | This condition is called cardiac tamponade |
| If the heart chambers cannot refill, then cardiac output declines and a person may die of catastrophic circulatory failure. | A similar situation occurs if serous fluid or air accumulates in the pleural cavity, causing collapse of a lung. |
| The right and left sides of the ---- contain the lungs. | thoracic cavity |
| Each lung is enfolded by a serous membrane called the | pleura |
| Like the pericardium, the pleura has | visceral (inner) and parietal (outer) layers |
| The ----- forms the external surface of the lung | visceral pleura |
| the ---- lines the inside of the rib cage | parietal pleura |
| The narrow space between them is called the pleural cavity | It is lubricated by slippery pleural fluid. |
| Note that in both the pericardium and the pleura, the ---- of the membrane covers an organ surface | visceral layer |
| the ----- lines the inside of a body cavity | parietal layer |
| The ------ consists of the abdominal cavity superiorly and the pelvic cavity inferiorly. | abdominopelvic cavity |
| The abdominal cavity contains most of the digestive organs as well as the. | spleen, kidneys, and ureters |
| It extends inferiorly to the level of a bony landmark called the brim of the pelvis | The abdominal cavity |
| The pelvic cavity, below the brim, is continuous with the abdominal cavity (no wall separates them), | but it is markedly narrower and tilts posteriorly |
| It contains the rectum, urinary bladder, urethra, and reproductive organs. | Pelvic Cavity |
| The abdominopelvic cavity contains a two-layered serous membrane called the peritoneum | Its outer layer, the parietal peritoneum, lines the cavity wall. |
| Parietal Peritoneum | Along the posterior midline, it turns inward and becomes another layer, the visceral peritoneum, suspending certain abdominal viscera from the body wall, covering their outer surfaces, and holding them in place |
| The peritoneal cavity is the space between the parietal and visceral layers. | It is lubricated by peritoneal fluid. |
| Some organs of the abdominal cavity lie against the posterior body wall and are covered by peritoneum only on the side facing the peritoneal cavity. | They are said to have a retroperitoneal position (“behind the peritoneum”) |
| Some organs of the abdominal cavity lie against the posterior body wall and are covered by peritoneum only on the side facing the | peritoneal cavity |
| They are said to have a retroperitoneal position ("behind the peritoneum") | peritoneal cavity |
| These include the kidneys, ureters, adrenal glands, most of the pancreas, and abdominal portions of two major blood vessels-the aorta and inferior vena cava | retroperitoneal organs (or structures) |
| Organs that are encircled by peritoneum and connected to the posterior body wall by peritoneal sheets are described as | intraperitoneal |
| The visceral peritoneum is also called a mesentery at points where it forms a translucent, membranous curtain suspending and anchoring the viscera | and a serosa (seer-OH-sa) at points where it enfolds and covers the outer surfaces of organs such as the stomach and small intestine. |
| There is only one ---- in the abdomen, but it folds in such a complex way around the intestines that it long gave anatomists the impression of several separate mesenteries. | mesentery |
| We still use more specific names, however, for different regions of the one | mesentery |
| The intestines are suspended from the posterior (dorsal) abdominal wall by the ----- | posterior mesentery |
| The posterior mesentery of the large intestine is called the | mesocolon |
| In some places, after wrapping around the intestines or other viscera, the ----- continues toward the anterior body wall as the anterior ---- | mesentery |
| The most significant example of this is a fatty membrane called the -----, which hangs like an apron from the inferolateral margin of the stomach and overlies the intestines | greater omentum |
| A smaller lesser ---- extends from the superomedial margin of the stomach to the liver. | omentum |
| Is the urinary bladder in the peritoneal cavity? | No, it is inferior to the peritoneal cavity, since the peritoneum passes over its superior surface |
| Peritonitis is inflammation of the peritoneum | It is a critical, life-threatening condition necessitating prompt treatment |
| The most serious cause of ----- is a perforation in the digestive tract, such as a ruptured appendix or a gunshot wound. | peritonitis |
| Digestive juices cause immediate chemical inflammation of the ----, followed by microbial inflammation as intestinal bacteria invade the body cavity. | peritoneum |
| Anything that perforates the abdominal wall can also lead to peritonitis | for example, surgery, gunshot wounds, and stab wounds |
| So, too, can free blood in the abdominal cavity, as from a ruptured aneurysm (a weak point in a blood vessel) or ectopic pregnancy (implantation of an embryo anywhere other than the uterus) | blood itself is a chemical irritant to the peritoneum. |
| Peritonitis | tends to shift fluid from the circulation into the abdominal cavity. |
| Death can follow within a few days from severe electrolyte imbalance, respiratory distress, kidney failure, and widespread blood clotting called | disseminated intravascular coagulation |
| Some of the spaces between body membranes are considered to be ----, so named because under normal conditions, the membranes are pressed firmly together and there is no actual space between them. | potential spaces |
| The membranes aren't physically attached, however, and under unusual conditions, they may separate and create a space filled with fluid or other matter. | Thus there is normally no actual space, but only a potential for membranes to separate and create one. |
| The pleural cavity is one example. | Thus there is normally no actual space, but only a potential for membranes to separate and create one. |
| Normally the parietal and visceral pleurae are pressed together without a gap between them, but under pathological conditions, air or serous fluid can accumulate between the membranes and open up a space. | The internal cavity (lumen) of the uterus is another |
| In a nonpregnant uterus, the mucous membranes of opposite walls are pressed together so there is no open space in the organ. | In pregnancy, of course, a growing fetus occupies this space and pushes the mucous membranes apart. |
| The human body has ---- (fig. A.9) and an immune system, which is better described as a population of cells that inhabit multiple organs rather than as an organ system. | 11 organ systems |
| The ----- are classified in the following list by their principal functions, but this is an imperfect classification. | organ systems |
| Some organs belong to two or more systems—for example, the male urethra is part of both the urinary and reproductive systems; the pancreas is part of the endocrine and digestive systems; | and the mammary glands can be considered part of the integumentary and female reproductive systems. |
| The organ systems are as follows: Systems of protection, support, and movement | Integumentary system Skeletal system Muscular system |
| Integumentary system | The organ systems are as follows: Systems of protection, support, and movement - ---- Skeletal system Muscular system |
| Skeletal system | The organ systems are as follows: Systems of protection, support, and movement - Integumentary system ---- Muscular system |
| Muscular system | The organ systems are as follows: Systems of protection, support, and movement - Integumentary system Skeletal system ---- |
| Systems of internal communication and control: ---- Endocrine system | Nervous system |
| Systems of internal communication and control: Nervous System Endocrine system | Endocrine system |
| Systems of fluid transport ----- Lymphatic system | Circulatory system |
| Systems of fluid transport Circulatory system ---------- | Lymphatic system |
| Systems of intake and output ---- Urinary system Digestive system | Respiratory system |
| Systems of intake and output Respiratory system ---- Digestive system | Urinary system |
| Systems of intake and output Respiratory system Urinary system ----- | Digestive system |
| Systems of reproduction ------ Female reproductive system | Male reproductive system |
| Systems of reproduction Male reproductive system ------- | Female reproductive system |
| Some medical terms combine the names of two systems—for example | the musculoskeletal system, cardiopulmonary system, and urogenital (genitourinary) system. |
| These terms serve to call attention to the close anatomical or physiological relationships between two systems, but these are not literally individual organ systems. | the musculoskeletal system, cardiopulmonary system, and urogenital (genitourinary) system. |
| Principal Organs: | Skin, hair, cutaneous glands |
| Skin | Principal Organs: ----, hair, cutaneous glands |
| hair | Principal Organs: Skin, ---, cutaneous glands |
| cutaneous glands | Principal Organs: Skin, hair, ---- |
| Principal Functions of Principal Organs: | Protection, water retention, thermoregulation, vietnam D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication |
| Integumentary System | Organs: Skin, Hair, Nails, Cutaneous Glands |
| Skin | Integumentary System Organs: ----, Hair, Nails, Cutaneous Glands |
| Hair | Integumentary System Organs: Skin, ---, Nails, Cutaneous Glands |
| Nails | Integumentary System Organs: Skin, Hair, ----, Cutaneous Glands |
| Cutaneous Glands | Integumentary System Organs: Skin, Hair, Nails, ---- |
| Integumentary System Functions | Protection, water retention, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication |
| Protection | Integumentary System Functions: ----, water retention, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication |
| water retention | Integumentary System Functions: Protection, -----, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication |
| thermoregulation | Integumentary System Functions: Protection, water retention, -----, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication |
| vitamin D synthesis | Integumentary System Functions: Protection, water retention, thermoregulation,-----, cutaneous sensation, nonverbal communication |
| cutaneous sensation | Integumentary System Functions: Protection, water retention, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, -----, nonverbal communication |
| nonverbal communication | Integumentary System Functions: Protection, water retention, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, cutaneous sensation, ----- |
| Skeletal system Organs: | Bones, Cartilages, Ligaments |
| Skeletal system Organs: ----, Cartilages, Ligaments | Bones |
| Skeletal system Organs: Bones, ----, Ligaments | Cartilages |
| Skeletal system Organs: Bones, Cartilages, ---- | Ligaments |
| Skeletal system Functions: | Support, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, blood formation, mineral storage, electrolyte and acid-base balance |
| Support | Skeletal system Functions: ----, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, blood formation, mineral storage, electrolyte and acid-base balance |
| movement | Skeletal system Functions: Support, -----, protective enclosure of viscera, blood formation, mineral storage, electrolyte and acid-base balance |
| protective enclosure of viscera | Skeletal system Functions: Support, movement,-----, blood formation, mineral storage, electrolyte and acid-base balance |
| blood formation | Skeletal system Functions: Support, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, -----, mineral storage, electrolyte and acid-base balance |
| mineral storage | Skeletal system Functions: Support, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, blood formation, ------, electrolyte and acid-base balance |
| electrolyte | Skeletal system Functions: Support, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, blood formation, mineral storage, ----- and acid-base balance |
| acid-base balance | Skeletal System Functions: Support, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, blood formation, mineral storage, electrolyte and ------ |
| Skeletal Organs: | Skeletal Muscles |
| Skeletal Functions: | Movement, stability, communication, control of body openings, heat production |
| Movement | Skeletal Functions: -----, stability, communication, control of body openings, heat production |
| stability | Skeletal Functions: Movement, -----, communication, control of body openings, heat production |
| communication | Skeletal Functions: Movement, stability, -----, control of body openings, heat production |
| control of body openings | Skeletal Functions: Movement, stability, communication, ------, heat production |
| heat production | Skeletal Functions: Movement, stability, communication, control of body openings, ---- |
| Lymphoid Organs | Lymph Nodes, Lymphatic vessels, thymus, spleen, tonsils |
| Lymph Nodes, | Lymphoid Organs: ---- Lymphatic vessels, thymus, spleen, tonsils |
| Lymphatic vessels | Lymphoid Organs: Lymph Nodes, -----, thymus, spleen, tonsils |
| thymus | Lymphoid Organs: Lymph Nodes, Lymphatic vessels, -----, spleen, tonsils |
| spleen | Lymphoid Organs: Lymph Nodes, Lymphatic vessels, thymus, -----, tonsils |
| tonsils | Lymphoid Organs: Lymph Nodes, Lymphatic vessels, thymus, spleen, ----- |
| Lymphoid Functions: | Recovery of excess tissue fluid, detention of pathogens, production of immune cells, defense against disease |
| Lymphoid Functions: | Lymphoid Functions: Recovery of excess tissue fluid, detention of pathogens, production of immune cells, defense against disease |
| Recovery of excess tissue fluid | Lymphoid Functions: -------, detention of pathogens, production of immune cells, defense against disease |
| detention of pathogens | Lymphoid Functions: Recovery of excess tissue fluid, -----, production of immune cells, defense against disease |
| production of immune cells | Lymphoid Functions: Recovery of excess tissue fluid, detention of pathogens, -------, defense against disease |
| defense against disease | Lymphoid Functions: Recovery of excess tissue fluid, detention of pathogens, production of immune cells, defense against disease |
| Respiratory System Organs: | Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs |
| Nose | Respiratory System Organs: -----, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs |
| pharynx | Respiratory System Organs: Nose, ----, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs |
| larynx | Respiratory System Organs: Nose, pharynx, ----, trachea, bronchi, lungs |
| trachea | Respiratory System Organs: Nose, pharynx, larynx, ------, bronchi, lungs |
| bronchi | Respiratory System Organs: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, ----, lungs |
| lungs | Respiratory System Organs: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, ---- |
| Respiratory Principal Functions | Absorption of oxygen, discharge of carbon dioxide, acid-base balance, speech |
| Respiratory Principal Functions: -----, discharge of carbon dioxide, acid-base balance, speech | Absorption of oxygen |
| Respiratory Principal Functions: Absorption of oxygen,-----, acid-base balance, speech | discharge of carbon dioxide |
| Respiratory Principal Functions: Absorption of oxygen, discharge of carbon dioxide, -----, speech | acid-base balance |
| Respiratory Principal Functions: Absorption of oxygen, discharge of carbon dioxide, acid-base balance, ---- | speech |
| Urinary Organs: | Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra |
| Kidneys | Urinary Organs: -----, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra |
| ureters | Urinary Organs: Kidneys, ----, urinary bladder, urethra |
| urinary bladder | Urinary Organs: Kidneys, ureters, -----, urethra |
| urethra | Urinary Organs: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, ---- |
| Urinary Functions: | Elimination of wastes, regulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of red blood cell formation, control of fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance; detoxification |
| Elimination of wastes | Urinary Functions: -----, regulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of red blood cell formation, control of fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance; detoxification |
| regulation of blood volume and pressure | Urinary Functions: Elimination of wastes, -----, stimulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of red blood cell formation, control of fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance; detoxification |
| stimulation of blood volume | Urinary Functions: Elimination of wastes, regulation of blood volume and pressure, ------ and pressure, stimulation of red blood cell formation, control of fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance; detoxification |
| control of fluid | Urinary Functions: Elimination of wastes, regulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of red blood cell formation, -----, electrolyte, and acid-base balance; detoxification |
| electrolyte | Urinary Functions: Elimination of wastes, regulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of red blood cell formation, control of fluid, -----, and acid-base balance; detoxification |
| acid-base balance | Urinary Functions: Elimination of wastes, regulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of red blood cell formation, control of fluid, electrolyte, and ------; detoxification |
| detoxification | Urinary Functions: Elimination of wastes, regulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of blood volume and pressure, stimulation of red blood cell formation, control of fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance; ----- |
| Nervous Organs: | Brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia |
| Brain | Nervous Organs: ----, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia |
| spinal cord | Nervous Organs: Brain, ----, nerves, ganglia |
| nerves | Nervous Organs: Brain, spinal cord, ----, ganglia |
| ganglia | Nervous Organs: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, ---- |
| rapid internal | Nervous functions: -----, communication, coordination, motor control and sensation |
| communication | Nervous functions: rapid internal, -----, coordination, motor control and sensation |
| coordination | Nervous functions: rapid internal, communication, -----, motor control and sensation |
| motor control | Nervous functions: rapid internal, communication, coordination, ----- and sensation |
| sensation | Nervous functions: rapid internal, communication, coordination, motor control and ---- |
| Endocrine System | Pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries |
| Pituitary gland | Endocrine System: ----, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries |
| pineal gland | Endocrine System: Pituitary gland, ----, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries |
| thyroid gland | Endocrine System: Pituitary gland, pineal gland, ----, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries |
| parathyroid glands | Endocrine System: Pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, -----, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries |
| thymus | Endocrine System: Pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, ----, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries |
| adrenal glands | Endocrine System: Pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, -----, pancreas, testes, ovaries |
| pancreas | Endocrine System: Pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, ----, testes, ovaries |
| testes | Endocrine System: Pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries |
| ovaries | Endocrine System: Pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ---- |
| Endocrine Functions | Hormone production, internal chemical communication and coordination |
| Endocrine Functions: -----, internal chemical communication and coordination | Hormone production |
| Endocrine Functions: Hormone production, ------ communication and coordination | internal chemical |
| Endocrine Functions: Hormone production, internal chemical -------- and coordination | communication |
| Endocrine Functions: Hormone production, internal chemical communication and ------ | coordination |
| Circulatory System Organs | Heart, blood vessels |
| Circulatory System Organs: ------, blood vessels | Heart |
| Circulatory System Organs: Heart, ------ | blood vessels |
| Circulatory System Functions: | Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance |
| Circulatory System Functions: -----, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | Distribution of nutrients |
| Circulatory System Functions: Distribution of nutrients, ----, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | oxygen |
| Circulatory System Functions: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, -----, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | wastes |
| Circulatory System Functions: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, ------, electrolytes, heat, immune cells and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | hormones |
| Circulatory System Functions: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, ------, heat, immune cells and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | electrolytes |
| Circulatory System Functions: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, -----, immune cells and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | heat |
| Circulatory System Functions: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, ---- and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | immune cells |
| Circulatory System Functions: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells and -----; fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | antibodies |
| Circulatory System Functions: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells and antibodies; ----, electrolyte, and acid-base balance | fluid |
| Circulatory System Functions: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells and antibodies; fluid, -----, and acid-base balance | electrolyte |
| Circulatory System Functions: Distribution of nutrients, oxygen, nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells and antibodies; fluid, electrolyte, and ---- | acid-base balance |
| Digestive Organs | Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas |
| Digestive Organs: ----, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas | Teeth |
| Digestive Organs: Teeth, ----, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas | tongue |
| Digestive Organs: Teeth, tongue, -----, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas | salivary glands |
| Digestive Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, ----, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas | esophagus |
| Digestive Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, ----, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas | stomach |
| Digestive Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach,------, liver, gallbladder, pancreas | small and large intestines, |
| Digestive Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, ----, gallbladder, pancreas | liver |
| Digestive Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, -----, pancreas | gallbladder |
| Digestive Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, ----- | pancreas |
| Digestive Functions: | Nutrient breakdown and absorption, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood |
| Digestive Functions: -----, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood | Nutrient breakdown and absorption |
| Digestive Functions: Nutrient breakdown and absorption, ----, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood | liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates |
| Digestive Functions: Nutrient breakdown and absorption, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, ----, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood | lipids |
| Digestive Functions: Nutrient breakdown and absorption, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, lipids, ----, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood | proteins |
| Digestive Functions: Nutrient breakdown and absorption, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, ----, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood | vitamins |
| Digestive Functions: Nutrient breakdown and absorption, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and ----; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood | minerals |
| Digestive Functions: Nutrient breakdown and absorption, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; ------; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood | synthesis of plasma proteins |
| Digestive Functions: Nutrient breakdown and absorption, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; -----, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood | disposal of drugs |
| Digestive Functions: Nutrient breakdown and absorption, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, ----, and hormones; and cleansing of blood | toxins |
| Digestive Functions: Nutrient breakdown and absorption, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and -----; and cleansing of blood | hormones |
| Digestive Functions: Nutrient breakdown and absorption, liver functions include metabolism and carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals; synthesis of plasma proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; and cleansing of blood | cleansing of blood |
| Male reproductive organs | Testes, epididymides, spermatic ducts, seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands, penis |
| Male reproductive organs: ----, epididymides, spermatic ducts, seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands, penis | Testes |
| Male reproductive organs: Testes, -----, spermatic ducts, seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands, penis | epididymides |
| Male reproductive organs: Testes, epididymides, -----, seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands, penis | spermatic ducts |
| Male reproductive organs: Testes, epididymides, spermatic ducts, -----, prostate, bulbourethral glands, penis | seminal vesicles, |
| Male reproductive organs: Testes, epididymides, spermatic ducts, seminal vesicles, ----, bulbourethral glands, penis | prostate |
| Male reproductive organs: Testes, epididymides, spermatic ducts, seminal vesicles, prostate, ------, penis | bulbourethral glands |
| Male reproductive organs: Testes, epididymides, spermatic ducts, seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands, ---- | penis |
| Male reproductive functions | Production and delivery of sperm; secretion of sex hormones |
| Male reproductive functions: ------; secretion of sex hormones | Production and delivery of sperm |
| Male reproductive functions: Production and delivery of sperm; ----- | secretion of sex hormones |
| Female reproductive organs | Ovaries, Uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands |
| Female reproductive organs: -----, Uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands | Ovaries |
| Female reproductive organs: Ovaries, -----, uterus, vagina, mammary glands | Uterine tubes |
| Female reproductive organs: Ovaries, Uterine tubes, ----, vagina, mammary glands | uterus |
| Female reproductive organs: Ovaries, Uterine tubes, uterus, ----, mammary glands | vagina |
| Female reproductive organs: Ovaries, Uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands | mammary glands |
| Female reproductive functions: | Production of eggs, site of fertilization and fetal development, fetal nourishment, birth, lactation, secretion of sex hormones |
| Female reproductive functions: -----, site of fertilization and fetal development, fetal nourishment, birth, lactation, secretion of sex hormones | Production of eggs |
| Female reproductive functions: Production of eggs, -----, fetal nourishment, birth, lactation, secretion of sex hormones | site of fertilization and fetal development |
| Female reproductive functions: Production of eggs, site of fertilization and fetal development, ------, birth, lactation, secretion of sex hormones | fetal nourishment |
| Female reproductive functions: Production of eggs, site of fertilization and fetal development, fetal nourishment, ----, lactation, secretion of sex hormones | birth |
| Female reproductive functions: Production of eggs, site of fertilization and fetal development, fetal nourishment, birth, ---- | lactation & secretion of sex hormones |
Created by:
Russells3709