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UNIT 5: COGNITION, M
AP Psychology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Memory | The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information. |
| Flashbulb memory | A vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, such as where you were during a major historical moment. |
| Encoding | The process of transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored in memory. |
| Storing | The retention of encoded information over time. |
| Retrieval | The process of accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness. |
| Sensory memory | The brief storage of sensory information (e.g., sights, sounds) that lasts for a fraction of a second. |
| Short-term memory | A limited capacity store for information that lasts about 15-30 seconds without rehearsal. |
| Long-term memory | A relatively permanent and limitless storage of information. |
| Working memory | A system for temporarily holding and manipulating information for complex cognitive tasks like reasoning and comprehension. |
| Autonomic processing | The unconscious encoding of information, such as space, time, and frequency. |
| Effortful processing | Encoding that requires conscious effort and attention. |
| Rehearsal | The conscious repetition of information to keep it in short-term memory or to encode it into long-term memory. |
| Spacing effect | The tendency for distributed practice (spacing out study sessions) to yield better long-term retention than massed practice (cramming). |
| Serial position effect | The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items. |
| Visual encoding | The process of encoding images and visual sensory information. |
| Acoustic encoding | The process of encoding sound, especially the sounds of words. |
| Semantic encoding | The process of encoding the meaning of information, often by relating it to prior knowledge. |
| Imagery | Mental pictures or sensory images that help in encoding and retrieval of information. |
| Mnemonics | Memory aids, often using vivid imagery or organizational devices. |
| Chunking | Organizing items into familiar, manageable units to enhance memory. |
| Iconic memory | A brief sensory memory of visual stimuli (lasting only a few tenths of a second). |
| Echoic memory | A brief sensory memory of auditory stimuli, lasting about 3-4 seconds. |
| Amnesia | A loss of memory, often due to brain injury or trauma. |
| Positive Transfer | The phenomenon where previous learning helps with the learning of new information. |
| Negative Transfer | The phenomenon where previous learning interferes with the learning of new information. |
| Implicit memory | Retention of information independent of conscious recollection (non-declarative memory). |
| Explicit memory | Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (declarative memory). |
| Hippocampus | A brain structure involved in the formation of new explicit memories. |
| Recall | A measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information without cues (e.g., essay test). |
| Recognition | A measure of memory in which a person must identify information from a list of options (e.g., multiple-choice test). |
| Relearning | The process of learning information again that was previously learned and forgotten, often measured by the time saved in relearning. |
| Priming | The activation of certain associations in memory, often unconsciously, to influence behavior or perception. |
| Repression | A defense mechanism where painful memories are unconsciously pushed out of awareness. |
| Déjà vu | The sensation that a current experience has been experienced before, due to a mismatch in memory retrieval. |
| Proactive interference | When older information interferes with the recall of newer information. |
| Retroactive interference | When new information interferes with the recall of older information. |
| Mood-dependent memory | The tendency to recall information better when in the same mood as when it was encoded. |
| State-dependent memory | The tendency to recall information better when in the same physiological state as when it was encoded. |
| Von Restorff effect | The tendency to remember an item that stands out as being distinctive or unusual in some way. |
| Concept | A mental grouping of similar objects, events, or people. |
| Prototype | A mental image or best example of a category. |
| Algorithm | A step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a problem. |
| Heuristic | A simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently but not always accurately. |
| Insight | A sudden realization of a problem's solution, often without a clear strategy. |
| Confirmation bias | The tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions. |
| Mental set | The tendency to approach problems with a mindset that has worked previously, potentially hindering creative solutions. |
| Functional fixedness | The tendency to think of objects only in terms of their usual functions, limiting creative problem-solving. |
| Representative heuristic | The tendency to judge the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a prototype or stereotype. |
| Framing | The way information is presented, which can influence decisions and judgments. |
| Availability heuristic | Judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory, which can be influenced by how recently or vividly they come to mind. |
| Self-fulfilling prophecy | A belief that leads to its own fulfillment, often because the belief influences behavior in ways that make the belief come true. |
| Intelligence | The ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. |
| Flynn Effect | The observed rise in IQ scores over time, suggesting that intelligence test performance is influenced by environmental factors. |
| Factor analysis | A statistical method used to identify clusters of related items on a test that measure the same ability. |
| General intelligence (g) | A general mental ability underlying all specific mental abilities, proposed by Charles Spearman. |
| Savant syndrome | A condition in which a person with a developmental disorder has an exceptional skill or talent, often in a specific area. |
| Emotional intelligence | The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions in oneself and others. |
| Creativity | The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas. |
| Self-efficacy | A belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task. |
| Mental age | The age at which a person is performing intellectually, as measured by their score on an intelligence test, compared to the average for that age group. |
| Stanford-Binet | A widely used intelligence test that measures IQ (intelligence quotient). |
| Intelligence quotient (IQ) | A measure of intelligence based on standardized tests, typically calculated as (mental age/chronological age) × 100. |
| Aptitude test | A test designed to predict a person's future performance or ability to learn new skills. |
| Predictive validity | The extent to which a test accurately predicts future performance. |
| Achievement test | A test designed to assess what a person has already learned. |
| Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) | A widely used intelligence test for adults that includes verbal and performance subtests. |
| Standardization | The process of ensuring that a test is administered and scored in a consistent, standardized manner. |
| Normal distribution | A bell-shaped curve, where most scores fall near the average and fewer scores are found at the extremes. |
| Reliability | The consistency of a test's results over time. |
| Split-half reliability | A measure of consistency where a test is divided into two halves, and scores are compared. |
| Validity | The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. |
| Content validity | The extent to which a test covers the material it is meant to assess. |
| Predictive validity | The extent to which a test accurately forecasts future performance or behavior. |
| Intellectual disability | A condition characterized by significant limitations in both intellectual functioning and adaptive behavior. |
| Down syndrome | A genetic condition caused by an extra chromosome 21, characterized by intellectual disability and distinct physical traits. |
| Fragile X syndrome | A genetic disorder that causes intellectual disability, often accompanied by social, behavioral, and communication challenges. |
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noahbalinsky