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BIO
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| MODULE 1 – Exam 1 Study Guide (Ch. 1, 23, 24) | |
| Biology = the scientific study of life. | |
| 2. What is life? The 7 characteristics of living things: | Living things typically:Are made of cells, Grow and develop, Reproduce, Maintain homeostasis, Use energy (metabolism), Respond to stimuli, Evolve as populations over time |
| 3. What is a virus? Is it alive? | 1. A virus is a small infectious particle made of genetic material + protein. 2.Not considered alive because:Not made of cells, Cannot reproduce on their own (need a host), Don’t metabolize energy |
| 4. The 3 Domains of Life | Bacteria (Prokaryotic, single-celled, No nucleus, Very diverse), Archaea (Prokaryotic, Often live in extreme environments), Eukarya (Have a nucleus, Humans are in the domain Eukarya.) |
| 5. What makes a good scientific hypothesis? | Testable, Falsifiable (can be proven wrong), Also specific, based on observations |
| 6. Steps of the Scientific Method | Observation, Question, Hypothesis, Experiment, Data collection & analysis, Conclusion, Publish / repeat / revise |
| 7. Hypothesis | a tentative explanation; tested with experiments. |
| Theory | a well-supported explanation backed by LOTS of evidence (ex: evolution, germ theory). |
| Independent variable | the factor you change |
| Dependent variable | the factor you measure |
| Control group | the baseline for comparison |
| Experimental group | receives the treatment |
| 9. Why are replication & sample size important? | More subjects = reduces chance of random error, Replication = ensures results are reliable and repeatable |
| 10. Why do we use statistics? | Statistics help determine whether results are meaningful or due to chance. |
| Correlation | two variables change together |
| Causation | one variable directly causes the other |
| Population | group of same species |
| Community | all populations of different species in one area |
| Ecosystem | organisms + abiotic environment |
| Biosphere | : all ecosystems on Earth |
| 13. Major source of energy for life: | The Sun. |
| Producers | make their own food (plants) |
| Consumers | eat other organisms (animals, humans → consumer) |
| 15. Photosynthesis Inputs | Inputs: CO₂ + water + sunlight |
| Photosynthesis Outputs | Outputs: glucose + oxygen |
| 16. Ecology Definition | The study of interactions between organisms and their environment. |
| Abiotic | non-living (light, water, temperature) |
| Biotic | living (animals, plants, bacteria) |
| Immigration: | individuals entering a population → increases size |
| Emigration | leaving a population → decreases size |
| Exponential growth: | J-shaped curve, Population grows without limits |
| Logistic growth: | S-shaped curve, Growth limited by carrying capacity (K) |
| 20. Carrying Capacity | Maximum number of individuals an environment can support→ Affects logistic growth only. |
| Competition, Predation, Disease, Limited food/water | |
| Affect population regardless of size (weather, natural disasters). | |
| 22. Human population growth | Current data: mostly exponential, but slowing in some regions. Hard to predict K because of technology, agriculture, resource use, and cultural differences. |
| Rectangular | stable, slow growth |
| Triangle | rapidly growing population |
| Community | all species in an area |
| Niche | role an organism plays (its “job”) |
| Ecosystem | community + abiotic factors |
| Food chain | flow of energy from one organism to another |
| Trophic level | position in food chain |
| Four basic trophic levels: | Producers, Primary consumers, Secondary consumers, Tertiary consumers |
| Biomass | total mass of living organisms |
| 10% rule | only ~10% of energy is passed to the next trophic level |
| 27. Biological Amplification (Magnification) | Toxins become more concentrated at higher trophic levels. |
| Carnivore | eats animals |
| Herbivore | eats plants |
| Omnivore | eats both (humans) |
| CO₂ | absorbed by plants → turned into sugar, Passed through food chain, Returned to atmosphere by respiration, decomposition, combustion |
| 30. Biodiversity | Variety of life in an area., Influenced by climate, habitat, resources, and human activity. |
| Background extinction | slow, normal rate |
| Mass extinction | sudden, huge loss of species globally |
| 32. Carbon Footprint | Total amount of CO₂ your lifestyle produces. |
| 33. Greenhouse Effect | Warming of Earth due to heat trapped by gases:CO₂, Methane, Nitrous oxide |
| 34. Why CO₂ is increasing | Burning fossil fuels, Deforestation (fewer trees to absorb CO₂) |
| 35. Global Warming | Increase in Earth’s average global temperature., |
| Weather | short-term |
| Climate | long-term patterns |
| 36. What ice cores show | Past atmospheric CO₂ levels—and they correlate tightly with temperature over thousands of years. |
| 37. Effects of global warming | Rising sea levels, More extreme weather, Melting ice caps, Habitat loss, Ocean acidification |
| 38. How to reduce your carbon footprint | Use energy-efficient appliances, Reduce driving, Eat less meat, Recycle, Conserve electricity and water |
| Protons | positive charge (+1), located in nucleus |
| Neutrons | no charge, located in nucleus |
| Determining Subatomic Particles | |
| Atomic number = | of protons |
| Atomic mass (rounded) = protons + neutrons | |
| Neutrons = mass – atomic number | |
| Electrons = protons (unless charged) | |
| If – charge → add electrons | |
| If + charge → subtract electrons | |
| 2. Types of Bonds | |
| Covalent | |
| Atoms share electrons | |
| Polar covalent | |
| Unequal sharing; partial + and – regions | |
| Ionic | |
| Electrons transferred; attraction between ions (Na⁺, Cl⁻) | |
| Hydrogen bonds | |
| Weak attraction between polar molecules (important in water, DNA) | |
| 3. Properties of Water | |
| Cohesion & adhesion | |
| High specific heat (stabilizes temp) | |
| Ice is less dense than water | |
| Universal solvent (good for transport) | |
| High heat of vaporization | |
| 4. pH Scale | |
| Measures H⁺ concentration | |
| Acidic: pH < 7 (more H⁺) | |
| Basic: pH > 7 (more OH⁻) | |
| Neutral: pH = 7 | |
| 5. Condensation vs. Hydrolysis | |
| Condensation (dehydration): builds polymers, releases water | |
| Hydrolysis: breaks polymers, uses water | |
| 6. Biological Molecules | |
| Carbohydrates | |
| Subunit: monosaccharides | |
| Function: energy (glucose), storage, structure | |
| Lipids | |
| Subunit: fatty acids + glycerol | |
| Functions: energy storage, membranes, hormones | |
| Proteins | |
| Subunit: amino acids | |
| Functions: enzymes, structure, transport, defense | |
| Nucleic acids | |
| Subunit: nucleotides | |
| Functions: DNA/RNA, genetic information | |
| 7. Triglycerides | |
| Structure: glycerol + 3 fatty acids | |
| Saturated: no double bonds, solid fats | |
| Unsaturated: double bonds, liquid oils | |
| CELL BIOLOGY (Ch. 3) | |
| 8. Homeostasis | |
| Maintaining a constant internal environment. | |
| 9. Cell Theory | |
| All living things are made of cells. | |
| Cells are the basic unit of life. | |
| Cells come from preexisting cells. | |
| 10. Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes | |
| | Feature | Prokaryotic | Eukaryotic | | |
| |—|—|—| | |
| | Nucleus | No | Yes | | |
| | Organelles | No | Yes | | |
| | Size | Small | Larger | | |
| | Examples | Bacteria, Archaea | Plants, animals, fungi, protists | | |
| 11. Phospholipid Structure | |
| Head: polar, hydrophilic | |
| Tails: non-polar, hydrophobic | |
| Forms a bilayer that is a good barrier because polar molecules cannot cross easily. | |
| Pass freely: small non-polar molecules (O₂, CO₂), some lipids | |
| Cannot pass freely: ions, large polar molecules, glucose, water (needs aquaporins) | |
| 12. Membrane Transport | |
| Diffusion: movement from high → low; no energy | |
| Facilitated diffusion: uses protein channels; no energy | |
| Active transport: low → high; requires ATP | |
| 13. Osmosis | |
| Movement of water across a membrane. | |
| Hypertonic: more solute outside → water moves out → cell shrinks | |
| Hypotonic: more solute inside → water moves in → cell swells | |
| Isotonic: equal → no net movement | |
| 14. Organelles & Their Functions | |
| Nucleus: holds DNA | |
| Ribosomes: make proteins | |
| Rough ER: protein synthesis | |
| Smooth ER: lipid synthesis, detox | |
| Golgi: modifies, packages, ships proteins | |
| Lysosomes: digestion, waste removal | |
| Mitochondria: makes ATP | |
| Cytoskeleton: structure and movement | |
| CELLULAR RESPIRATION (Ch. 7) | |
| 15. ATP | |
| Energy currency of the cell; powers reactions. | |
| 16. Steps of ATP Production | |
| In the Cytoplasm | |
| Glycolysis (no oxygen required) | |
| In the Mitochondria | |
| Pyruvate oxidation (needs O₂) | |
| Krebs cycle (needs O₂) | |
| Electron transport chain (needs O₂) | |
| ETC produces the MOST ATP. | |
| 17. Electron carriers (NADH, FADH₂) | |
| Carry high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain, where most ATP is made. | |
| 18. Cellular Respiration Overview | |
| Inputs: glucose + oxygen | |
| Outputs: CO₂ + water + ATP | |
| Opposite of photosynthesis. | |
| 19. Fermentation | |
| Allows glycolysis to continue when oxygen is absent. | |
| Produces lactic acid (humans) or alcohol (yeast). | |
| Use fermentation when: | |
| No oxygen available | |
| ETC cannot operate | |
| Respiration vs. Fermentation: | |
| Respiration → uses O₂, lots of ATP | |
| Fermentation → no O₂, little ATP | |
| NERVOUS SYSTEM | |
| 20. Functions of the Nervous System | |
| Sensory input | |
| Integration | |
| Motor output | |
| 21. Central Nervous System (CNS) | |
| Brain | |
| Spinal cord | |
| 22. CNS vs PNS | |
| CNS: brain & spinal cord | |
| PNS: all nerves outside CNS | |
| 23. Divisions of PNS | |
| Sensory (afferent): to CNS | |
| Motor (efferent): away from CNS | |
| Somatic (voluntary) | |
| Autonomic (involuntary: sympathetic & parasympathetic) | |
| 24. Sensory vs. Motor | |
| Sensory: receptors → CNS | |
| Motor: CNS → muscles/glands | |
| 25. Neuron Structure | |
| Dendrites: receive signals | |
| Cell body: integrates signals | |
| Axon: sends signal | |
| Myelin sheath: increases speed | |
| Axon terminal: releases neurotransmitters | |
| 26. Neuroglial Cells | |
| Astrocytes – support, blood-brain barrier (CNS) | |
| Microglia – immune cells (CNS) | |
| Ependymal cells – produce CSF (CNS) | |
| Oligodendrocytes – myelin in CNS | |
| Schwann cells – myelin in PNS | |
| 27. Myelination & Saltatory Conduction | |
| Myelin = insulation around axons | |
| Saltatory conduction: AP jumps between nodes → MUCH faster | |
| 28. Ion Channels | |
| Leak channels: always open | |
| Ligand-gated: open when a chemical binds | |
| Voltage-gated: open when membrane reaches threshold | |
| 29. Na⁺/K⁺ Pump | |
| Pumps 3 Na⁺ out and 2 K⁺ in | |
| Maintains resting membrane potential | |
| Uses ATP | |
| 30. Local (graded) potentials | |
| Small, local changes in membrane voltage | |
| Can depolarize or hyperpolarize | |
| If strong enough → trigger action potential | |
| 31. Action Potential Steps | |
| Local potential reaches threshold | |
| Na⁺ channels open → Na⁺ in → depolarization | |
| Na⁺ channels inactivate; K⁺ channels open → K⁺ out → repolarization | |
| K⁺ channels stay open too long → hyperpolarization | |
| Return to resting state | |
| 32. Resting Membrane Potential | |
| About –70 mV | |
| Threshold ≈ –55 mV | |
| 33. Depolarization / Repolarization / Hyperpolarization | |
| Depolarization: membrane becomes more positive (Na⁺ in) | |
| Repolarization: returns to negative (K⁺ out) | |
| Hyperpolarization: too negative | |
| 34. All-or-None Principle | |
| If threshold is reached, an AP fires completely. | |
| If not, nothing happens. | |
| 35. Refractory Periods | |
| Absolute: no AP possible (Na⁺ channels inactive) | |
| Relative: AP possible but needs stronger stimulus | |
| 36. Synapse Events | |
| AP reaches terminal | |
| Ca²⁺ channels open | |
| Ca²⁺ triggers vesicles to fuse | |
| Neurotransmitters released | |
| Bind postsynaptic receptors | |
| Cause depolarization or inhibition | |
| Neurotransmitters removed | |
| 37. Chemical vs Electrical Synapses | |
| Chemical: use neurotransmitters (most common) | |
| Electrical: gap junctions, super fast | |
| 38. Removing Neurotransmitters | |
| Reuptake | |
| Diffusion | |
| Enzymatic breakdown | |
| 39. Ionotropic Receptors | |
| Fast, ligand-gated channels (ex: acetylcholine at neuromuscular junction). | |
| Control ion flow → rapid depolarization. | |
| MODULE 3 – MUSCLE, BONE, ENDOCRINE SYSTEM | |
| MUSCLE TISSUE | |
| 1. Connective Tissue Layers | |
| Endomysium: surrounds each muscle fiber | |
| Perimysium: surrounds fascicles (bundles of muscle fibers) | |
| Epimysium: surrounds the entire muscle | |
| 2. Muscle Structural Terms | |
| Fascicle: bundle of muscle fibers | |
| Muscle fiber: single muscle cell | |
| Myofibril: long protein bundles inside fibers | |
| Sarcomere: functional contractile unit (Z-disc to Z-disc) | |
| Myofilaments: | |
| Thick filaments: myosin | |
| Thin filaments: actin, tropomyosin, troponin | |
| 3. Myosin vs. Actin | |
| Myosin (thick): | |
| Golf-club shape | |
| Has heads that bind actin | |
| Uses ATP to pull actin | |
| Actin (thin): | |
| Has binding sites for myosin | |
| Regulated by troponin + tropomyosin | |
| 4. Sarcomere Bands | |
| A band: length of thick filament (always same length) | |
| I band: thin filaments only | |
| H zone: thick only, no overlap | |
| Z disc: boundary of sarcomere | |
| M line: center of sarcomere | |
| 5. Triad | |
| Triad = T-tubule + 2 terminal cisternae (of sarcoplasmic reticulum). | |
| T-tubules: | |
| Invaginations of sarcolemma | |
| Carry the action potential deep into the muscle fiber | |
| 6. Sliding Filament Mechanism | |
| Thin filaments slide toward M line | |
| Sarcomere shortens | |
| Changes during contraction: | |
| I band: decreases | |
| H zone: decreases | |
| A band: stays same | |
| Z discs: move closer | |
| M line: center, unchanged | |
| 7. Synapse of a Motor Neuron | |
| Neuromuscular junction (NMJ): | |
| Axon terminal | |
| Synaptic cleft | |
| Motor end plate (muscle membrane) | |
| Neurotransmitter = acetylcholine (ACh) | |
| 8. Events of Muscle Excitation | |
| AP arrives at axon terminal | |
| Ca²⁺ enters terminal | |
| ACh released | |
| ACh binds to receptors on motor end plate | |
| Na⁺ channels open | |
| Na⁺ rushes into muscle fiber → depolarization | |
| 9. Required Ion for Excitation–Contraction Coupling | |
| Calcium (Ca²⁺). | |
| 10. Where is calcium stored? | |
| Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR). | |
| Released when the AP travels down the T-tubules. | |
| 11. Power Stroke | |
| Myosin binds actin | |
| Myosin head pivots → pulls actin toward M line | |
| Calcium removes tropomyosin blockade | |
| ATP detaches myosin head and resets it | |
| 12. Isotonic vs Isometric | |
| Isotonic: muscle changes length (movement) | |
| Isometric: tension increases, length stays same | |
| 13. Tetanus | |
| Sustained muscle contraction with no relaxation between stimuli. | |
| BONE TISSUE | |
| 14. Anatomy of a Long Bone | |
| Diaphysis: shaft | |
| Epiphyses: ends | |
| Periosteum: outer fibrous membrane | |
| Endosteum: lines marrow cavity | |
| Medullary cavity: contains marrow | |
| Articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage on epiphyses | |
| 15. Bone Cells | |
| Osteoblasts: build bone (deposition) | |
| Osteoclasts: break down bone (resorption) | |
| Osteocytes: mature bone cells, maintain bone | |
| Origins | |
| Osteoblasts & osteocytes come from osteogenic cells | |
| Osteoclasts come from blood stem cells (macrophage lineage) | |
| 16. Osteogenic Cells | |
| Stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts. | |
| 17. Osteon Components (Compact Bone) | |
| Central canal: blood vessels | |
| Lamellae: concentric rings | |
| Lacunae: spaces housing osteocytes | |
| Canaliculi: channels connecting lacunae | |
| 18. Spongy Bone | |
| Contains trabeculae (meshwork) | |
| Lamellae present but irregular | |
| Houses red bone marrow | |
| 19. Articular Cartilage | |
| Hyaline cartilage covering bone ends in joints → reduces friction. | |
| 20. Bone Ossification | |
| Endochondral ossification | |
| Bone replaces hyaline cartilage | |
| Most bones (long bones) | |
| Intramembranous ossification | |
| Bone develops from mesenchymal tissue | |
| Skull bones, clavicle | |
| 21. Epiphyseal Plate | |
| Growth plate where long bones grow in length (interstitial growth). | |
| 22. Appositional Growth | |
| Bone grows in width by adding layers under the periosteum. | |
| 23. Hormones Involved in Bone Growth | |
| Growth hormone: increases mitosis | |
| Thyroid hormone: metabolism, growth | |
| Sex hormones (estrogen/testosterone): growth spurt; later closes plates | |
| Calcitonin: decreases blood Ca²⁺ | |
| PTH: increases blood Ca²⁺ | |
| 24. Chondrocytes | |
| Cartilage cells located in lacunae. | |
| ENDOCRINE SYSTEM | |
| 25. Major Function | |
| Regulates body processes using hormones (slow but long-lasting). | |
| 26. Hormones | |
| Chemical messengers released into blood that affect target tissues. | |
| 27. Target Cell | |
| A cell with the specific receptor for a hormone. | |
| 28. Hydrophilic vs Hydrophobic Hormones | |
| Hydrophilic (water-soluble): | |
| Cannot cross membrane | |
| Bind surface receptors → 2nd messenger systems | |
| Example: peptides, amines | |
| Hydrophobic (lipid-soluble): | |
| Cross membrane | |
| Bind intracellular receptors | |
| Example: steroids, thyroid hormone | |
| 29. Hormone Classes | |
| Peptide hormones: proteins (ex: insulin) | |
| Amine hormones: from amino acids (epinephrine, T3/T4) | |
| Steroid hormones: cholesterol-based (estrogen, cortisol) | |
| 30. Hypothalamus & Pituitary Relationship | |
| Hypothalamus controls pituitary through: | |
| Blood vessels (anterior pituitary) | |
| Nerves (posterior pituitary) | |
| Connected by: infundibulum. | |
| 31. Anterior Pituitary Hormones | |
| GH: growth | |
| TSH: thyroid stimulation | |
| ACTH: adrenal cortex stimulation | |
| FSH: egg/sperm production | |
| LH: ovulation, testosterone | |
| Prolactin: milk production | |
| 32. Posterior Pituitary Hormones | |
| ADH: water retention by kidneys | |
| Oxytocin: uterine contractions, milk ejection | |
| 33. Thyroid Gland Hormones | |
| T3/T4: increase metabolism | |
| Calcitonin: decreases blood calcium | |
| 34. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) | |
| Increases blood calcium | |
| Opposes calcitonin | |
| 35. Adrenal Gland Hormones | |
| Adrenal cortex: | |
| Aldosterone: Na⁺ retention | |
| Cortisol: stress response, glucose production | |
| Androgens: secondary sex characteristics | |
| Adrenal medulla: | |
| Epinephrine / norepinephrine (fight or flight) | |
| 36. Pancreas Hormones | |
| Insulin: lowers blood glucose | |
| Glucagon: raises blood glucose | |
| 37. Diabetes | |
| Type 1: no insulin production (autoimmune). | |
| Type 2: insulin resistance. | |
| 38. Growth Disorders | |
| Gigantism: excess GH in childhood | |
| Acromegaly: excess GH in adults | |
| 39. Thyroid Disorders | |
| Goiter: enlarged thyroid (iodine deficiency) | |
| Hyperthyroidism: too much T3/T4 | |
| Hypothyroidism: too little T3/T4 | |
| 40. Hormones You Must Know | |
| ADH – water retention | |
| Oxytocin – contractions, milk letdown | |
| Growth hormone – growth | |
| TSH – stimulates thyroid | |
| FSH, LH – reproduction | |
| ACTH – stimulates adrenal cortex | |
| Prolactin – milk production | |
| Insulin – ↓ blood sugar | |
| Glucagon – ↑ blood sugar | |
| Thyroid hormone (T3/T4) – ↑ metabolism | |
| Calcitonin – ↓ blood calcium | |
| PTH – ↑ blood calcium | |
| Aldosterone – Na⁺ retention | |
| Cortisol – stress hormone | |
| Androgens – sex hormone precursors | |
| MODULE 4 – COMPREHENSIVE STUDY GUIDE | |
| HEART ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY | |
| Pericardium | |
| Fibrous pericardium – tough outer layer; anchors heart, prevents overfilling. | |
| Serous pericardium – thin, double-layered membrane: | |
| Parietal layer – lines inner surface of fibrous pericardium | |
| Visceral layer (epicardium) – outer surface of heart | |
| Pericardial cavity – contains serous fluid to reduce friction. | |
| Layers of the Heart | |
| Epicardium – outer; protection & lubrication | |
| Myocardium – middle; cardiac muscle (thickest layer) | |
| Endocardium – inner; lines chambers & valves | |
| Heart Chambers & Valves | |
| Right atrium → Right ventricle → Left atrium → Left ventricle | |
| Atrioventricular valves – tricuspid (right), bicuspid/mitral (left) | |
| Semilunar valves – pulmonary valve, aortic valve | |
| Blood Circulation | |
| Pulmonary Circulation Pathway | |
| Right ventricle → Pulmonary valve → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium | |
| Right side: low O₂, high CO₂ (deoxygenated) | |
| Left side: high O₂ (oxygenated) | |
| Electrical System of the Heart | |
| SA Node & AV Node | |
| SA node: primary pacemaker; sets heart rate | |
| AV node: delays signal so ventricles can fill | |
| Auto-rhythmicity | |
| Heart generates its own rhythm using pacemaker cells, which spontaneously depolarize. | |
| Pacemaker Cell Depolarization | |
| No stable resting membrane potential | |
| Ca²⁺ influx is responsible for rapid depolarization | |
| Cardiac Conduction System | |
| SA node (initiates heartbeat) | |
| AV node (slows signal) | |
| AV bundle (Bundle of His) | |
| Bundle branches | |
| Purkinje fibers | |
| Contractile cells of ventricles | |
| Cardiac Cycle & ECG | |
| Cardiac Cycle Phases | |
| Ventricular filling – AV valves open | |
| Isovolumetric contraction – all valves closed; pressure rises | |
| Ventricular ejection – semilunar valves open | |
| Isovolumetric relaxation – all valves closed | |
| Valve Activity | |
| AV valves open: ventricular filling | |
| AV valves closed: contraction | |
| Semilunar open: ejection | |
| Semilunar closed: filling & relaxation | |
| Electrocardiogram (ECG) | |
| P wave: atrial depolarization | |
| QRS complex: ventricular depolarization | |
| T wave: ventricular repolarization | |
| Cardiac Output & Related Terms | |
| Cardiac Output (CO) | |
| CO = HR × SV | |
| Stroke Volume (SV) | |
| SV = EDV – ESV | |
| EDV: blood in ventricle after filling | |
| ESV: blood in ventricle after contraction | |
| Inotropic agents | |
| Change contractility | |
| Chronotropic agents | |
| Change heart rate | |
| BLOOD VESSELS & BLOOD PRESSURE | |
| Differences Between Arteries & Veins | |
| Arteries: thick walls, high pressure | |
| Veins: thin walls, valves, low pressure | |
| Venous Return Helpers | |
| Skeletal muscle pump | |
| Respiratory pump | |
| Venous valves | |
| Blood Pressure Terms | |
| Systolic – pressure during ventricular contraction | |
| Diastolic – pressure during relaxation | |
| MAP (Mean Arterial Pressure) – average pressure in arteries | |
| Peripheral Resistance Factors | |
| Blood viscosity ↑ → resistance ↑ | |
| Vessel length ↑ → resistance ↑ | |
| Vessel radius ↑ → resistance ↓ (most important) | |
| Where Pressure is Highest/Lowest | |
| Highest: arteries (aorta) | |
| Lowest: veins (vena cava) | |
| Hormones that Decrease BP | |
| ANP | |
| Renin–Angiotensin–Aldosterone System (RAAS) | |
| Low BP → kidneys release renin | |
| Renin → converts angiotensinogen to Ang I | |
| Ang I → Ang II (vasoconstrictor) | |
| Ang II stimulates: | |
| ADH → water retention | |
| Aldosterone → Na⁺ retention → ↑ BP | |
| ANP | |
| Released from atria when BP is high | |
| Causes vasodilation & Na⁺ excretion → lowers BP | |
| RESPIRATORY SYSTEM | |
| Organs | |
| Upper: nose, nasal cavity, pharynx | |
| Lower: larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs | |
| Boyle’s Law | |
| ↑ Volume → ↓ Pressure | |
| ↓ Volume → ↑ Pressure | |
| Muscles of Respiration | |
| Inhalation: diaphragm, external intercostals | |
| Forced exhalation: internal intercostals, abdominal muscles | |
| Gas Laws & Gas Exchange | |
| Henry’s Law | |
| Gas dissolves into liquid based on partial pressure and solubility. | |
| Dalton’s Law | |
| Total pressure = sum of all gas partial pressures. | |
| Partial Pressures (Approximate) | |
| Location | |
| O₂ | |
| CO₂ | |
| Atmosphere | |
| 160 | |
| 0.3 | |
| Alveoli | |
| 104 | |
| 40 | |
| Blood (venous) | |
| 40 | |
| 45 | |
| Gases move from high → low partial pressure. | |
| Gas Exchange Efficiency Depends On | |
| Thickness of respiratory membrane | |
| Surface area | |
| Pressure gradients | |
| Ventilation-Perfusion Coupling | |
| Areas with more CO₂ → bronchodilation | |
| Ensures air flow matches blood flow | |
| Respiratory Volumes | |
| Tidal volume: normal breath | |
| IRV: extra inhaled air | |
| ERV: extra exhaled air | |
| Residual volume: air remaining after max exhale | |
| Vital capacity: TV + IRV + ERV | |
| Gas Transport & pH Balance | |
| How Oxygen is Transported | |
| 98.5% bound to hemoglobin | |
| 1.5% dissolved in plasma | |
| How CO₂ is Transported | |
| 70% as bicarbonate | |
| 23% bound to Hb | |
| 7% dissolved | |
| Carbonic Acid Equation | |
| CO₂ + H₂O ⇌ H₂CO₃ ⇌ H⁺ + HCO₃⁻ | |
| Relationship Between CO₂ & pH | |
| ↑ CO₂ → ↑ H⁺ → ↓ pH (acidic) | |
| ↓ CO₂ → ↓ H⁺ → ↑ pH (basic) | |
| Hyperventilation vs Hypoventilation | |
| Hyperventilation: blows off CO₂ → prevents acidosis | |
| Hypoventilation: retains CO₂ → prevents alkalosis | |
| MODULE 5 – COMPREHENSIVE STUDY GUIDE | |
| URINARY SYSTEM (KIDNEYS & NEPHRON) | |
| Functions of the Kidneys | |
| Remove metabolic wastes | |
| Regulate fluid balance | |
| Regulate electrolytes | |
| Regulate acid–base balance | |
| Produce hormones (EPO, renin) | |
| Regulate blood pressure | |
| Activate vitamin D | |
| Detoxify blood | |
| Anatomy of the Kidney | |
| Renal cortex – outer region, contains renal corpuscles | |
| Renal medulla – inner region, contains renal pyramids | |
| Renal pyramids – triangular structures containing nephron loops | |
| Renal sinus – internal cavity | |
| Renal pelvis – funnel-shaped tube leading to ureter | |
| Nephron | |
| Functional unit of the kidney | |
| Two major parts: | |
| Renal corpuscle (glomerulus + Bowman's capsule) | |
| Renal tubule (PCT → loop of Henle → DCT → collecting duct) | |
| Glomerulus & Blood Supply | |
| Glomerulus = ball of fenestrated capillaries | |
| Fed by afferent arteriole (larger) | |
| Drained by efferent arteriole (smaller → increases pressure) | |
| Parts of the Renal Tubule | |
| PCT – proximal convoluted tubule | |
| Loop of Henle – descending & ascending limbs | |
| DCT – distal convoluted tubule | |
| Collecting duct | |
| Brush border (microvilli): PCT | |
| Peritubular Capillaries & Vasa Recta | |
| Peritubular capillaries: surround PCT & DCT; reabsorption | |
| Vasa recta: surround nephron loop in juxtamedullary nephrons; important for concentration of urine | |
| FILTRATION | |
| Where It Occurs | |
| Glomerulus → Bowman's capsule | |
| Forces Involved | |
| GHP (Glomerular Hydrostatic Pressure): 55 mmHg, pushes fluid out | |
| COP (Colloid Osmotic Pressure): 30 mmHg, pulls fluid in | |
| CHP (Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure): 15 mmHg, pushes back in | |
| Net Filtration Pressure | |
| NFP = GHP – (COP + CHP) | |
| NFP = 10 mmHg | |
| Filtrate Contains | |
| Water | |
| Ions (Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻) | |
| Glucose | |
| Amino acids | |
| Nitrogen wastes | |
| Not normally found: | |
| ❌ proteins | |
| ❌ blood cells | |
| ❌ platelets | |
| REABSORPTION | |
| Proximal Tubule Reabsorbs | |
| 65% water | |
| Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻ | |
| 100% glucose & amino acids | |
| Bicarbonate | |
| Glucose reabsorption: | |
| Uses Na⁺/glucose symport (SGLT) → secondary active transport. | |
| Loop of Henle | |
| Descending limb: permeable to water, NOT solutes → reabsorbs water | |
| Ascending limb: permeable to solutes, NOT water → reabsorbs Na⁺, Cl⁻ | |
| Distal Tubule Reabsorbs | |
| Na⁺ (regulated by aldosterone) | |
| Ca²⁺ (regulated by PTH) | |
| Collecting Duct Reabsorbs | |
| Water (via ADH) | |
| Na⁺ (via aldosterone) | |
| GFR (Glomerular Filtration Rate) | |
| Volume of filtrate formed per minute | |
| High BP → ↑ GFR → too much lost | |
| Low BP → ↓ GFR → waste retained | |
| Myogenic Mechanism | |
| If BP ↑ → afferent arteriole constricts | |
| If BP ↓ → afferent arteriole dilates | |
| Tubular Secretion | |
| Movement of substances from blood → tubule | |
| Examples: H⁺, K⁺, drugs, toxins | |
| RAAS System | |
| Activated when: | |
| BP drops | |
| Sympathetic NS activated | |
| Steps: | |
| Kidneys release renin | |
| Renin converts angiotensinogen → Ang I | |
| ACE converts Ang I → Ang II | |
| Effects of Angiotensin II | |
| Strong vasoconstriction | |
| Stimulates aldosterone | |
| Stimulates ADH | |
| ↑ thirst | |
| ↑ Na⁺ & water retention | |
| ↑ BP | |
| Where ADH Works | |
| Collecting duct | |
| Inserts aquaporins → water reabsorption | |
| Where Aldosterone Works | |
| DCT & collecting duct | |
| Reabsorbs Na⁺, excretes K⁺ → water follows | |
| Dilute vs Concentrated Urine | |
| Dilute urine: low ADH | |
| Concentrated urine: high ADH, vasa recta countercurrent multiplier used | |
| ANP | |
| Released when BP is high | |
| Causes excretion of Na⁺ & water → lowers BP | |
| Erythropoietin (EPO) | |
| Released due to low O₂ levels | |
| Stimulates RBC production | |
| Countercurrent Mechanism | |
| Occurs in loop of Henle + vasa recta | |
| Creates a medullary gradient that allows concentration of urine | |
| DIGESTIVE SYSTEM | |
| Organs of the Alimentary Canal | |
| Mouth | |
| Pharynx | |
| Esophagus | |
| Stomach | |
| Small intestine | |
| Large intestine | |
| Anal canal | |
| Four Layers (Innermost → Outermost) | |
| Mucosa | |
| Submucosa | |
| Muscularis externa | |
| Serosa | |
| Cells of Gastric Glands | |
| Mucous neck cells → mucus | |
| Chief cells → pepsinogen | |
| Parietal cells → HCl & intrinsic factor | |
| DNES cells → hormones (e.g., gastrin) | |
| Pepsin | |
| Digests proteins | |
| Activated when pepsinogen + HCl → pepsin | |
| Which Nervous System Stimulates Acid Production? | |
| Parasympathetic NS | |
| Vagus nerve (CN X) | |
| Small Intestine Regions | |
| Duodenum (receives chyme) | |
| Jejunum | |
| Ileum | |
| Absorption | |
| Movement of nutrients from GI tract → blood/lymph | |
| Pancreatic Juice | |
| Enzymes + bicarbonate | |
| Released into duodenum | |
| Produced by acinar cells | |
| Hormones from Duodenum | |
| Secretin → bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻) | |
| CCK → pancreatic enzymes + bile release | |
| Bile | |
| Produced in liver | |
| Stored in gallbladder | |
| Emulsifies fats | |
| Major Function of Large Intestine | |
| Absorb water & electrolytes | |
| Form feces | |
| Anal Sphincters | |
| Internal: involuntary (smooth muscle) | |
| External: voluntary (skeletal muscle) | |
| REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM | |
| Meiosis | |
| Two divisions | |
| Produces 4 haploid gametes | |
| Spermatogenesis | |
| Steps: | |
| Spermatogonium | |
| Primary spermatocyte | |
| Secondary spermatocyte | |
| Spermatid | |
| Spermatozoa (mature sperm) | |
| Hormonal Control | |
| LH: stimulates Leydig cells → testosterone | |
| Testosterone: supports sperm formation | |
| FSH: stimulates Sertoli cells → nourish sperm | |
| Products of Spermatogenesis | |
| 4 functional sperm | |
| Ovarian Follicles | |
| Primordial: at birth | |
| Primary: single layer enlarged | |
| Secondary: multiple layers, antrum forms | |
| Tertiary/Graafian: large antrum, ready to ovulate | |
| When Are Eggs Produced? | |
| All primary oocytes are produced before birth | |
| Ovarian Cycle | |
| Follicular phase (FSH) | |
| Ovulation (LH surge) | |
| Luteal phase (progesterone) | |
| Corpus Luteum vs Corpus Albicans | |
| Corpus luteum: produces progesterone | |
| Corpus albicans: scar tissue after luteum degenerates | |
| Menstrual Cycle Hormones | |
| FSH: follicle growth | |
| LH: triggers ovulation | |
| Estrogen: thickens endometrium | |
| Progesterone: maintains endometrium | |
| Ovulation Trigger | |
| LH surge | |
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