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Stack #4593043
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Term: Endomysium | Definition: A delicate connective tissue membrane that surrounds and covers individual skeletal muscle fibers. |
| Term: Perimysium | Definition: Tough connective tissue that binds muscle fibers together into bundles called fascicles. |
| Term: Epimysium | Definition: A coarse connective tissue sheath that covers the skeletal muscle as a whole. |
| What is the difference between a muscle’s origin and insertion? | The origin is the point of attachment that does not move during muscle contraction, while the insertion is the point of attachment that moves when the muscle contracts. |
| Term: Prime mover (Agonist) | A muscle that directly performs or initiates a specific movement. |
| Question: Which class of lever is most common in the human body and what is its function? | Third-class levers are the most common; they permit rapid and extensive movement by placing the pull between the fulcrum and the load. |
| List three common features used to name skeletal muscles. | Muscle location, direction of muscle fibers, and muscle function (other acceptable features include number of heads, points of attachment, and relative size). |
| Term: Appendicular muscles | Definition: Muscles associated with the limbs that are grouped according to their attachment to the appendicular (peripheral) skeleton rather than the axial skeleton. |
| What is the primary function of lower extremity muscles? | Lower extremity muscles function in locomotion and maintenance of body stability. |
| Term: Muscles acting on the shoulder girdle | Definition: Muscles that attach the upper extremity to the torso and are located on the anterior chest or posterior back and neck; they also allow extensive movement of the upper limb. |
| Where are the muscles that move the wrist, hand, and fingers located? | On the anterior and posterior surfaces of the forearm. |
| What is “good posture,” and how is it maintained? | Good posture is body alignment that favors function and minimizes muscular effort; it is maintained by muscle tone, nervous system regulation, and contributions from respiratory, digestive, excretory, and endocrine systems. |
| How does aging affect the muscular system? | Degenerative changes with advancing age lead to replacement of muscle cells with nonfunctional connective tissue, resulting in decreased muscle mass and strength. |
| Term: Central nervous system (CNS) | Definition: The structural and functional center of the nervous system, consisting of the brain and spinal cord, which integrates sensory information and initiates responses. |
| What is the primary function of the nervous system? | To detect changes in internal and external environments, evaluate information, and initiate appropriate responses to maintain homeostasis. |
| Term: Astrocytes | Definition: Star-shaped glial cells in the CNS that support neurons, transfer nutrients from blood to neurons, and help form the blood-brain barrier (BBB). |
| Term: Myelin sheath | Definition: A fatty insulating layer surrounding axons that increases the speed and efficiency of nerve impulse conduction. |
| What are the three main structural classifications of neurons? | Multipolar neurons (one axon, multiple dendrites), bipolar neurons (one axon and one dendrite), and unipolar (pseudounipolar) neurons. |
| Term: Reflex arc | Definition: A neural pathway that conducts impulses to and from the CNS, beginning at a receptor and ending at an effector, allowing rapid, automatic responses. |
| Why is repair of nerve fibers more successful in the PNS than in the CNS? | Peripheral nerves can regenerate if the cell body and Schwann cells remain intact, whereas neurons in the CNS have limited repair capability and damage is often permanent. |
| Define homeostasis and explain how the nervous system contributes to it. | Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. The nervous system contributes by detecting internal and external changes through sensory receptors, processing information in the CNS, and coordinating rapid responses via motor pathways. |
| What structures make up the central nervous system (CNS), and what is its primary role? | The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord and serves as the control center that integrates sensory input, processes information, and initiates motor responses. |
| How does the peripheral nervous system (PNS) differ functionally from the CNS? | The PNS consists of cranial and spinal nerves that connect the CNS to the rest of the body, carrying sensory information to the CNS and motor commands away from it. |
| Distinguish between afferent and efferent nerve pathways. | Afferent pathways carry sensory information from receptors to the CNS, while efferent pathways transmit motor commands from the CNS to effectors such as muscles and glands. |
| What is the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and what types of effectors does it control? | The ANS is a division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary functions by controlling smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands, and adipose tissue. |
| Compare the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. | The sympathetic division prepares the body for stress or emergencies (“fight or flight”), while the parasympathetic division promotes normal resting functions and energy conservation (“rest and repair”). |
| Why is nervous system signaling considered faster than endocrine signaling in regulating body functions? | Nervous system signaling uses electrical impulses and neurotransmitters that act rapidly and locally, whereas endocrine signaling relies on hormones transported through the bloodstream, producing slower but longer-lasting effects. |
| What are general senses, and where are their receptors located? | General senses include touch, pressure, pain, temperature, vibration, and proprioception. Their receptors are widely distributed throughout the skin, muscles, joints, and connective tissues. |
| How do special senses differ from general senses? | Special senses are localized to specialized sensory organs in the head and include vision, hearing, equilibrium, taste, and smell, whereas general senses are distributed throughout the body. |
| Identify the special sense associated with each structure: retina, cochlea, and olfactory epithelium. | The retina is associated with vision, the cochlea with hearing, and the olfactory epithelium with smell. |
| Define endocrine regulation and explain how it differs from nervous system regulation. | Endocrine regulation involves the release of hormones into the bloodstream to affect target organs over a longer duration, whereas nervous system regulation uses rapid electrical and chemical signals for short-term, immediate responses. |
| What is a hormone, and how does it exert its effect on target cells? | A hormone is a chemical messenger secreted by an endocrine gland that binds to specific receptors on target cells, altering cellular activity. |
| Name the major endocrine glands and identify one primary function of each. | The pituitary gland regulates other endocrine glands; the thyroid regulates metabolism; the adrenal glands assist with stress responses; the pancreas regulates blood glucose; the gonads regulate reproduction and sexual development. |
| Why is negative feedback important in endocrine regulation? | Negative feedback maintains hormonal balance by reducing hormone secretion once target effects are achieved, preventing excessive or prolonged responses. |
| What are the primary functions of blood in the human body? | Blood functions in transport of gases, nutrients, hormones, and wastes; regulation of pH and body temperature; and protection through clotting and immune defenses. |
| Define hematocrit and explain its clinical significance. | Hematocrit is the percentage of blood volume composed of red blood cells and is used clinically to assess hydration status, anemia, or polycythemia. |
| Describe the structural features of the heart that enable effective pumping of blood. | The heart contains four chambers, valves that prevent backflow, and thick muscular walls—especially in the left ventricle—to generate sufficient pressure for systemic circulation. |
| Compare the functions of arteries, veins, and capillaries. | Arteries carry blood away from the heart under high pressure, veins return blood to the heart and contain valves to prevent backflow, and capillaries allow exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes with tissues. |
| What is the difference between pulmonary circulation and systemic circulation? | Pulmonary circulation moves blood between the heart and lungs for gas exchange, while systemic circulation delivers oxygenated blood from the heart to the body and returns deoxygenated blood back to the heart. |
| Explain how blood pressure is generated and maintained. | Blood pressure is generated by the force of ventricular contraction and maintained by arterial elasticity, blood volume, and peripheral resistance. |
| Why are capillaries considered the primary site of exchange in the circulatory system? | Capillaries have thin, one-cell-thick walls that allow efficient diffusion of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, and metabolic wastes between blood and tissues. |
| What are the primary functions of the lymphatic system? | The lymphatic system returns excess interstitial fluid to the bloodstream, absorbs dietary fats from the intestine, and provides immune defense against pathogens. |
| Define lymph and describe how it differs from blood plasma. | Lymph is interstitial fluid that has entered lymphatic vessels; it is similar to plasma but contains fewer proteins and no red blood cells. |
| What is the role of lymph nodes in immune function? | Lymph nodes filter lymph, remove pathogens and debris, and provide sites for lymphocyte activation and proliferation. |
| Describe innate immunity and give two examples of innate defenses. | Innate immunity is a nonspecific, immediate defense present at birth and includes physical barriers (skin, mucous membranes), inflammation, phagocytic cells, fever, and antimicrobial proteins. |
| How does adaptive immunity differ from innate immunity? | Adaptive immunity is specific, develops after exposure to an antigen, involves lymphocytes, and provides immunological memory for faster and stronger responses upon re-exposure. |
| Distinguish between B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes in adaptive immunity. | B lymphocytes produce antibodies and mediate humoral immunity, while T lymphocytes mediate cellular immunity by directly attacking infected or abnormal cells or coordinating immune responses. |
| Why is immunological memory clinically important? | Immunological memory allows the immune system to respond more rapidly and effectively to previously encountered pathogens, forming the basis for long-term immunity and vaccination. |
| What are the primary functions of the respiratory system? | The respiratory system provides oxygen for cellular metabolism, removes carbon dioxide, helps regulate blood pH, and enables vocalization. |
| Trace the pathway of air from the external environment to the alveoli. | Air enters through the nasal cavity, passes through the pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, and finally reaches the alveoli. |
| Define alveoli and explain their role in gas exchange. | Alveoli are microscopic air sacs with thin walls surrounded by capillaries that allow diffusion of oxygen into the blood and carbon dioxide out of the blood. |
| What structural features make the alveoli efficient for gas exchange? | Alveoli have a large surface area, extremely thin walls, a moist surface, and a rich capillary network, all of which enhance diffusion. |
| Distinguish between external respiration and internal respiration. | External respiration is the exchange of gases between alveoli and pulmonary capillaries, while internal respiration is the exchange of gases between systemic capillaries and body tissues. |
| How do the diaphragm and intercostal muscles contribute to ventilation? | During inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and flattens while intercostal muscles elevate the ribs, increasing thoracic volume and drawing air into the lungs; relaxation reverses this process during expiration. |
| Why is oxygen transport dependent on hemoglobin rather than simple diffusion alone? | Hemoglobin binds oxygen, allowing the blood to carry far more oxygen than could be transported by plasma alone, ensuring adequate oxygen delivery to tissues. |
Created by:
jmvega