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Bio Final
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are emergent properties? | New functions/behaviors that arise at higher levels of organization from interactions among parts. |
| Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells? | Prokaryotic: no nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles. Eukaryotic: nucleus + membrane-bound organelles. |
| Why is compartmentalization important in eukaryotes? | Separates reactions, increases efficiency, protects from harmful chemistry, allows specialization. |
| What is the Fluid Mosaic Model? | Membrane = phospholipid bilayer + proteins, dynamic and organized, supports transport, signaling, and structure. |
| What is gene expression? | DNA → RNA → Protein; proteins perform most cellular functions. |
| Mendel’s Law of Segregation? | Alleles separate during meiosis; gametes carry one allele. |
| Mendel’s Law of Independent Assortment? | Allele pairs for different genes separate independently, producing variation. |
| Examples of non-Mendelian inheritance? | Incomplete dominance, codominance, multiple alleles, pleiotropy, epistasis, polygenic traits. |
| Why is the genetic code called “redundant”? | Multiple codons can code for the same amino acid. |
| What is metabolism? | Sum of all chemical reactions, organized into pathways. |
| Difference between catabolic and anabolic pathways? | Catabolic: break down molecules, release energy (exergonic). Anabolic: build molecules, require energy (endergonic). |
| Role of ATP? | Energy currency; couples exergonic and endergonic reactions. |
| What is chemiosmosis? | Proton gradient drives ATP synthase to phosphorylate ADP → ATP. |
| Photosynthesis vs. Respiration? | Photosynthesis: CO₂ + H₂O → glucose + O₂ (stores energy). Respiration: glucose + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + ATP (releases energy). |
| What is the role of the cell membrane in interactions? | Selective barrier + communication hub; controls transport and signaling. |
| Cell cycle checkpoints? | G1: size/nutrients/DNA integrity. G2: DNA replication accuracy. M: spindle attachment. |
| What happens if checkpoints fail? | Cancer, genomic instability, or aneuploidy. |
| How does meiosis create variation? | Crossing over + independent assortment + fertilization. |
| What is the ultimate source of genetic variation? | Mutation. |
| How does meiosis contribute to evolution? | Generates variation via crossing over and independent assortment. |
| What is natural selection’s role? | Acts on variation to drive adaptation. |
| Why is sexual reproduction advantageous? | Increases genetic diversity, enhancing survival and evolution. |
| Carbohydrate | * Monomer: monosaccharide * Function: energy+ structure * Examples: glucose, starch, glycogen, cellulose, chitin |
| Lipids | *Types: fats/oils, phospholipids, steroids *Function: long-term energy, membranes, hormones |
| Proteins | * Monomer: amino acids(20) * Function: enzymes, transport, defense, structure, signaling, movement |
| Nucleic Acids | * Monomer: nucleotide * DNA: stores information * RNA: expresses information |
| What is the smallest unit of life? | the cell |
| What limits cell size and affect rates of exchange? | Surface area to volume ratio |
| What structure provides support and movement inside the cell? | Cytoskeleton: microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments |
| What are plasmodesmata vs. gap junctions? | Plasmodesmata = plant cell connections Gap junctions= animal cell communication channels |
| What is the role of aquaporins? | Specialized channels for rapid water transport across membranes. |
| What is the difference between DNA and RNA? | DNA stores genetic information while RNA expresses the information |
| What is pleiotropy | one gene affects multiple traits |
| What is epistasis ? | one gene affects the expression of another gene. |
| Why is sexual reproduction advantageous? | It increases genetic diversity, enhancing adaptability |
| What evolutionary advantages does wobble paring provide? | Increases efficiency and tolerance to mutations in the genetic code. |
| What is the role of NADH and FADH2 in respiration? | They carry high-energy electrons to the electron transport chain. |
| What is substrate-level phosphorylation? | Direct ATP formation by transferring phosphate from a substrate to ADP |
| What is oxidation phosphorylation? | ATP formation powered by electron transport and chemiosmosis |
| Why can't cells store energy directly as glucose | Glucose energy is too large and unstable : ATP provides manageable, usable packets of energy. |
| What enzyme fixes CO2 in the Calvin cycle? | RUBisCO |
| What happens if the G1 checkpoint fails? | Cells may divide uncontrollably= cancer |
| What distinguishes G0 from G1 phase? | G0= nondividing/ resting state. G1 = growth /preparation for division. |
| Why is maintaining constant pH critical for protiens? | Changes in pH can denature proteins and disrupt enzyme activity |
| What interaction restores the diploid state after meiosis? | Fertilization |
| What is the role of the Na+/ K+ pump? | Active transport maintaining ion gradients essential for nerve signals and muscle contraction. |
| What is the ultimate molecular source of genetic variation? | mutation |
| How does crossing over contribute to varation? | Homologous chromosomes exchange segments. creating recombinant chromosomes. |
| What is independent assortment? | Random orientation of homologous pairs during meiosis 1. Millions of possible gamete combinations. |
| Why are most autosomal aneuploidies lethal? | Gene dosage imbalance disrupts normal gene expression. |
| How does natural selection act on variation? | it favors beneficial traits, leading to adaptation and evolution. |
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