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Unit 2 Psychology
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Anterograde amnesia | an inability to form new memories. |
| Retrograde amnesia | an inability to remember information from one’s past. |
| Proactive interference | the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information. |
| Retroactive interference | the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information. |
| Repression | n psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. |
| Reconsolidation | a process by which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again. |
| Misinformation effect | occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information. |
| Source amnesia | faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source). Source amnesia, along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. |
| Déjà vu | that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger the retrieval of an earlier experience. |
| Priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of associations in memory. |
| Encoding specificity | the idea that cues and context specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it. |
| Mood-congruent memory | the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood. |
| Serial position effect | our tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially (a recency effect), and the first items in a list after a delay (a primacy effect). |
| Interleaving | a retrieval strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics. |
| Semantic memory | explicit memories of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is episodic memory). |
| Episodic memory | explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems (the other is semantic memory). |
| Hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories—of facts and events—for storage. |
| Memory consolidation | the neural storage of a long-term memory. |
| Flashbulb memory: | a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event. |
| Explicit memory | retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare.” (Also called declarative memory.) |
| Effortful processing | encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. |
| Automatic processing | unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings. |
| Implicit memory | retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also called nondeclarative memory.) |
| Iconic memory | a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second. |
| Echoic memory | a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. |
| Chunking | organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. |
| Mnemonics | memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. |
| Spacing effect | the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through mass study or practice. |
| Testing effect | enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. |
| Shallow processing | encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words. |
| Deep processing | encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention. |
| Memory | the persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. |
| Recall | a measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test. |
| Recongnition | a measure of memory in which a person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test. |
| Relearning | a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again. |
| Encoding | the process of getting information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. |
| Storage | the process of retaining encoded information over time. |
| Retrieval | the process of getting information out of memory storage. |
| Parallel Processing | processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously. |
| Sensory Memory | the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. |
| Short-term Memory | briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is late stored or forgotten. |
| Long-term Memory | the relatively permanent, limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. |
| Working Memory | a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory. |
| Central Executive | a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. |
| Phonological Loop | memory component that briefly holds auditory information. |
| Visuospatial Sketchpad | a memory component that briefly holds information about objects’ appearance and location in space. |
| Neurogenesis | the formation of new neurons. |
| Long-term potentiation | an increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory. |
| Executive functioning | cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior. |
| Algorithm | a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier — but also more error prone — use of heuristics. |
| Heuristics | a simple thinking strategy — a mental shortcut — that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than an algorithm. |
| Insight | a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrast with strategy-based solutions. |
| Confirmation bias | a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence. |
| Fixation | in cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an obstacle in problem solving. |
| Mental Set | a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. |
| Intuition | an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted to explicit conscious reasoning. |
| Representativeness heuristic | judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information. |
| Availability heuristic | judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common. |
| Overconfidence | the tendency to more confident than correct — to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements. |
| Belief perseverance | the persistence of one’s initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. |
| Framing | the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. |
| Nudge | framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions. |
| Cognition | all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. |
| Metacognition | cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes. |
| Concept | a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. |
| Prototype | a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype is a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird, such as a crow). |
| Schema | a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information. |
| Assimilation | interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. |
| Accommodation | adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information. |
| Creativity | the ability to produce new and novel ideas. |
| Convergent Thinking | narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. |
| Divergent Thinking | expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions. |
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