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AP Psych Unit 2
Cognition
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Prototype | a mental image or best example of a category |
| Concept | a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people |
| Assimilation | interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas |
| Accommodation | adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information |
| Algorithm | a step by step process to solving problems |
| Heuristic | a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error |
| representativeness heuristic | a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case |
| Availability Heuristic | making a decision based on the answer that most easily comes to mind |
| Mental Set | a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past |
| Priming and Framing | the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response AND a cognitive bias where people's decisions change depending on how options are framed, even when the options are logically identical. |
| Gambler's Fallacy | the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently |
| Sunk | cost Fallacy |
| Executive Functioning | the cognitive abilities and processes that allow humans to plan or inhibit their actions |
| Creativity | The ability to make or bring a new concept or idea into existence; marked by the ability or power to create. |
| Divergent Thinking | expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions) |
| Convergent Thinking | narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution |
| Functional Fixedness | the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving |
| Explicit (Declarative) Memory | memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" |
| Semantic Memory | a network of associated facts and concepts that make up our general knowledge of the world |
| Episodic Memory | the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place |
| Implicit Memory | Memories we don't deliberately remember or reflect on consciously |
| Procedural Memory | the gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice, or "knowing how" to do things |
| Prospective Memory | remembering to do things in the future |
| Flashbulb Memory | a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event |
| Memory Consolidation | the gradual, physical process of converting new long |
| Long | Term Potentiation |
| Working Memory Model | An explanation of the memory used when working on a task. Each store is qualitatively different. |
| Multi | Store Model |
| Iconic Memory | a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture |
| Echoic Memory | a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds |
| Effortful Processing | encoding that requires attention and conscious effort |
| Automatic Processing | unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well |
| Levels of Processing Model | model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed," or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, |
| Encoding | the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning. |
| Storage | the retention of encoded information over time |
| Retrieval | the process of getting information out of memory storage |
| Mnemonics | memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices |
| Chunking | organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically |
| Method of Loci | A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations |
| Spacing Effect (Distributed Practice) | our tendency to retain information more easily if we practice it over time in multiple sessions |
| Serial Position Effect (Primacy | Recency) |
| Maintenance Rehearsal | A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it |
| Elaborative Rehearsal | A memory technique that involves thinking about the meaning of the term to be remembered, as opposed to simply repeating the word to yourself over and over. |
| Autobiographical Memory | the memory for events and facts related to one's personal life story |
| Relearning | a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time |
| Anterograde Amnesia | an inability to form new memories |
| Retrograde Amnesia | an inability to retrieve information from one's past |
| Alzheimer's Disease | a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and, finally, physical functioning |
| Infantile Amnesia | inability of adults to remember personal experiences that took place before an early age |
| Recognition | a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple |
| Recall | A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill |
| Retrieval Cues | stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory |
| Context | Dependent Memory |
| Mood | Congruent Memory |
| State | Dependent Memory |
| Testing Effect | enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information |
| Metacognition | awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. |
| Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus) | Describes how the ability of the brain to retain information decreases in time. |
| Encoding Failure | the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long |
| Proactive Interference | the forward |
| Retroactive Interference | the backward |
| Tip | of |
| Repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety |
| Misinformation Effect | when misleading information has corrupted one's memory of an event |
| Source Amnesia | attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined |
| Constructive Memory | a process by which we first recall a generalized schema and then add in specific details |
| Imagination Inflation | a memory phenomenon in which vividly imagining an event markedly increases confidence that the event actually occurred |
| General Intelligence (g) | according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test |
| Crystallized Intelligence | one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age |
| Fluid Intelligence | one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood |
| Emotional Intelligence | the ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions |
| Intelligence Quotient (IQ) | defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100. |
| Standardization | defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group |
| Construct Validity | The extent to which there is evidence that a test measures a particular hypothetical construct. |
| Predictive Validity | The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. |
| Reliability | the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting |
| The Flynn Effect | The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations |
| Stereotype Threat | the apprehension experienced by members of a group that their behavior might confirm a cultural stereotype |
| Achievement Test | measures how much a person has learned in a given subject or area |
| Aptitude Tests | a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn |
| Fixed vs. Growth Mindset | Fixed = Intelligence is a fixed trait that cannot be developed. Growth = Intelligence is a malleable quality that can be developed and cultivated through effort. Carol Dweck. |
Created by:
klamar1