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Phys exam 4
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| involves the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the external environment and the cells of the body | pulmonary system/physiology/gas exchange |
| what barriers filter and catch particles in the respiratory system | nasal hairs and mucus |
| opens when breathing, closed when swallowing | epiglottis |
| adam's apple, males have longer vocal chords than females | larynx |
| connected between nasal cavity and oral cavity | pharynx |
| cells that line respiratory tract, move in opposite direction | ciliary escalator |
| disease where there's a problem in the chloride channels which causes mucus in the lungs to be thick and sticky | cystic fibrosis |
| what are the branches of the lungs starting with the trachea | trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs |
| what branches of the respiratory system are composed of cartilaginous rings | trachea and bronchi |
| what branches of the respiratory system are composed of smooth muscle and what does this do | bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, and respiratory bronchioles; allows for contraction and dilation |
| in what branches of the respiratory system does gas exchange occur | respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveolar sacs |
| where does most gas exchange occur in the lungs | in the alveoli |
| why is the pressure in pulmonary circulation low | the lungs are closer to the heart and vessels are thinner because of oxygen exchange |
| how does blood travel in pulmonary circulation | Right Ventricle to pulmonary arteries to lungs to pulmonary veins |
| what's the main difference in pulmonary circulation vs systemic circulation in terms of oxgen | Pulmonary - arteries are deoxygenated and veins are oxygenated Systemic- arteries are oxygenated and veins are deoxygenated |
| tiny hollow sacs whose open ends are continuous with the lumen of airways | alveoli |
| type 1 vs type 2 alveolar cells | type 1 are flat epithelial cells and type 2 secrete surfactant to help alveoli stay open |
| what are the layers that makeup the pleural sac inside to out | visceral pleura, intrapleural space contains intrapleural fluid, parietal pleura |
| what is the function of the intrapleural fluid | provide lubricant to reduce friction |
| the exchange of air between the atmosphere and alveoli | ventilation |
| what does the visceral pleura connect to | connects to the lung wall |
| what does the parietal pleura connect to | the thoracic wall |
| what happens if the chest wall isn't attached to anything | would expand outward (held inward by attachment to parietal) |
| what happens if the lungs aren't attached to anything | would recoil inward (pulled open by attachment to the visceral wall of pleural sac) |
| what does the attachment between the chest wall and lungs create | transpulmonary pressure aka transmural pressure pressure inside - pressure outside |
| describe a pneumothorax | when the sealed pleural cavity is opened and air flows in the bond holding the lung to the chest wall is broken and the lungs collapse inward, creating a pneumothorax - air in the thorax |
| Collapse of alveoli, leading to reduced or absent gas exchange in the affected area. | atelectasis |
| what's the difference between pneumothorax and atelectasis | atelectasis is specifically the alveoli collapsing in the lungs and pneumothorax is just air in the thorax |
| The volume of air in the lungs after a quiet exhale when respiratory muscles are relaxed | FRC (functional residual capacity) |
| intrapleural pressure during FRC | -4 |
| exchange of 02 between alveoli and blood | respiration |
| breathing out C02 | expiration |
| air moves from a region of high pressure to one of low pressure | bulk flow |
| breathing in 02 | inhale |
| what are the relavent pressures for airflow | atmp (atmospheric pressure) and alvp (alveolar pressure) |
| what is normal atmospheric pressure | 760 mmHg |
| why is atm = 0 often | Normal atmospheric pressure is 760 mmHg in absolute terms, but in physiology we often set it as 0 (relative) to simplify calculations. |
| how to calculate rate of airflow into and out of the lungs | F - Palv - Patm/R |
| When Palv is less than P atm what happens | air moves inside (inspiration) 02 |
| when Palv is greater than Patm what happens | air moves outside (expiration) C02 |
| when pressure increased volume | decreases |
| when volume increases pressure | decreases |
| What is boyle's law | pressure and volume are inversely related when temperature and the amount of gas are constant P1V1 = P2V2 |
| three reasons pressure gradients are required for ventilation | change volume of container, pressure changes inside the container, new pressure gradient allows flow of air |
| during inspiration what is the Palv pressure relative Patm (0) | -1 |
| during expiration what is the Palv relative to Patm (0) | +1 |
| explain pressure gradients in ventilation | At functional residual capacity pressures are equal Palv = Patm chest wall expands, volume increases, which decreases Palv and causes air to flow inside. Then chest wall then inspires, decreasing volume which increases Palv pressure causing air to flowout |
| what muscles are always active during inspiration | diaphragm (contracts), external intercostals (contract chest wall expands) |
| what are the accessory muscles of inspiration | scalenus and sternocleidomastoid |
| what muscles are always active during passive expiration | diaphragm (relaxes), external intercostals relax (chest wall moves down and in) |
| what muscles are active during active/forced expiration | abdominal muscles and internal intercostals |
| what is the work of breathing determined by | lung compliance and elasticity, airway resistance |
| what is lung compliance and elasticity determined by: | stretchability of tissues and surface tension at air-water interfaces within alveoli |
| high compliance means | stretchability |
| high elasticity means | easy to recoil |
| what is the relationship between compliance and muscular effort | as compliance increases muscular effort decreases, and as compliance decreases muscular effort increases |
| does collagen increase or decrease compliance | decreases it makes the tissue harder |
| does surfactant in alveoli decrease or increase compliance | increase makes the tissue more flexible and |
| emphysema | low elasticity |
| describe low vs high elasticity | low elasticity makes it easy to get air in but hard to push it out, and high elasticity makes it hard to get air in but easy to push it out |
| how does the surfactant in alveoli increase compliacne | lowers surface tension and makes it easier to expand lungs |
| describe the physiology behind surfactant secretion by the alveoli | type II alveolar cells secrete a surfactant which stops H20 from interacting and stops alveolus from collapsing by lowering the surface tension and keeping the alveoli open |
| what happens if there is no surfactant | alveoli collapse, not enough ox exchange |
| what makes up pulmonary surfactants | phospholipids and proteins |
| premature vs full term alveoli what syndrome is this | alveoli can't secrete surfactant yet - Newborn respiratory distress syndrome - treatment includes synthetic surfactant or ventillator |
| what is the relationship between large airway and resistance | low resistance |
| what is the relationship between small airway and resistance | high resistance |
| what is the normal cost of breathing | 3% of total metabolism |
| how much of your metabolism does lung disease take | 30% |
| what law states that in a mixture of gases, the pressure each gas exerts is the sum of individual pressure exerted by each gas | Dalton's Law |
| 2 physical properties of gases | 1. collisions with walls determines pressure 2. Dalton's law |
| what law states that the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid will be proportional to the partial pressure | Henry's law |
| what is the P02 in atm | 160 mmHg |
| what is the PCO2 in atm | 0.3 mmHg |
| what is the PO2 in alveoli | 105 mmHg |
| what is the PCO2 in alveoli | 40 mmHg |
| what is the PO2 of capillary coming off pulmonary arteries | 40 mmHg |
| what is the PCO2 of capillary coming off pulmonary arteries | 46 mmHg |
| what is the partial pressures of the pulmonary veins | PO2= 100 PCO2= 40 |
| what is the partial pressures of the systemic arteries | PO2= 100 PCO2=40 |
| what is the partial pressure in the cells | PO2 < 40 PCO2>46 |
| what is the partial pressure of the systemic veins | PO2= 40 PCO2=46 |
| what is deoxygenated vs oxygenated blood high in low in relevant to O2 and CO2 | deoxygenated blood is high in CO2 and low in O2 oxygenated blood is high in O2 and low in CO2 |
| two ways 02 is transported in the blood | bound to hemoglobin and dissolved in plasma |
| how many oxygen molecules does hemoglobin bind | 4 |
| how many heme groups are in hemoglobin | 4 |
| explain the relevancy of hemoglobin and oxygen to partial pressure | when oxygen is bounded to hemoglobin it no longer accounts for the overall partial pressure |
| three ways that CO2 travels in the blood | 1. dissolved in plasma 2. bound to hemoglobin 3. as a bicarbonate ion |
| high hydrogen atoms causes | low ph acidosis |
| low hydrogen atoms causes | high ph basic (alkolosis) |
| hypoventilation and hyperventilation in relation to hydrogen and ph | hypoventilation - breathing to little. Buildup of carbon dioxide and not enough oxygen, increasing hydrogen leads to low pH acidic. Hyperventilation -breathing too deeply, too much ox not enough carbon dioxide low hydrogen increased pH basic |
| explain carbon monoxide poisoning | carbon monoxide has a higher affinity for the oxygen binding sites on hemoglobin which reduces the amount of O2 that can bind thereby reducing the amount of oxygen supplied to the body |
| hypoventilation and hyper in terms of CO2 | hypo - too much CO2, build up in the blood acidosis hyper- to little CO2, too little carbon dioxide in the blood, alkolosis |
| what are the 4 function in homeostasis | intake of nutrients, ions, water 2. digestion (macro to micro) 3. absorption into body 4. detox foreign substances (liver) |
| trace the path of food through the gastrointestinal tract | esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine |
| trace the path of the sphincters | upper esophageal sphincter, lower esophageal sphincter, pyloric sphincter, ileocecal , internal anal sphincter, external anal sphincter |
| name what the sphincters seperate | upper - epiglottis to esophagus lower - esophagus and stomach pyloric - stomach and duodenum (small intestine) ileocecal- ileum to cecum (large intestine) internal anal - anal canal external anal- anal canal (defecation) |
| what does the epithelium layer of the gut do | secrete mucus and release hormones into the blood |
| what does the submucosa layer of the gut do | has nerve cells, blood and lymph vessels branch into up and down layers |
| what does the muscularis externa layer of the gut do | contract to produce moving and mixing. circular and longitudinal muscle (myentric plexus) |
| what are the layers of the gut from out to in | muscularis externa, mucosa, submucosa, lumen, endothelium |
| what do the myentric plexus and submucosal plexus do | form the nervous system of the GI |
| what muscle is responsible for short reflexes within the GI | submucosa plexus |
| what muscle is responsible for long reflexes that are controled from the autonomic system | mucus externa plexus |
| 3 types of regulation of the digestive system complex | intrinsic nerve plexuses, extrinsic autonomic nerves, and gastrointestinal hormones |
| explain the intrinsic nerve plexuses | has more neurons then spinal cord (sub plexus) |
| explain the extrinsic autonomic nerves | CNS modifies activity parasymp. activates and symp inhibits |
| explain the gastrointestinal hormones | gastrin, CCK, secretin |
| what are the phases of GI control | cephalic, gastric, and intestinal |
| what is the cephalic phases of GI control | stimulated by sight, smell, taste, chewing, and emotional states |
| what is the gastric phase of GI control | food in stomach, stimulated by distension, acidity, amino acids, peptides |
| what is the intestinal phase of GI control | food hits the small intestine, stimulated by distension, acidity, osmolarity, and digestive products |
| where is gastrin secreted and what does it do | secreted from the antrum of the stomach. Stimulates secretion of HCL from parietal cells in the stomach |
| where is secretin secreted from and what does it do | secreted from the small intestine, inhibits gastric secretion and motility of the stomach |
| where is CCK (cholecystokinin secreted and what does it do | secreted by cells in the small intestine, stimulates the pancrease enzyme to help digest food , inhibit stomach motility, and secretion if the small intestine is still full |
| what is chyme made of | gastric juice + food |
| what are the 4 cells in the stomach that | mucous cells, parietal cells, ECL cells, and chief cells |
| what is motility | waves of smooth muscle contraction, helps mix and propel food |
| parts of the small intestine from beginning to end | duodenum, jejunum, ileum, ileocecal sphincter |
| what allow for high surface area in the small intestine | villi and microvilli |
| where does most absorption take place? | in the small intestine |
| what is the two types of motility in the small intestine | segmentation, migrating myoelectric complex (MMC) |
| what is the difference between the two types of motility of the small intestine | segmentatinon moves food completely from the small intestine during a meal and MMC sweeps up any left after a meal |
| what sphincters allow for secretions to pass from the liver to the pancreas to the small intestine (duodenum) | sphincter of Oddi |
| what are the parts of the large intestine | cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum |
| 3 types of motility in the large intestine a | segmentation, mass movements, defacation |
| what are the functions of the kidney | regulates water, inorganic ion balance, removal of metabolic waste products from the blood and their excretion in the urine, removal of foreign chemicals, production of hormones/enzymes |
| what is the inner and outer layer of the kidney | renal cortex (outer) and renal medulla (inner) |
| what are the steps of nephron blood supply | renal artery, afferent arteriole, glomerular capillaries, efferent arteriole, peritubular capillaries/vasa recta, renal vein |
| what makes up the renal carpuscle | the glomerular capillaries, bowman's space, and bowmans capsule |
| the long loops of Henle that generate gradient in medulla which is important for H2O reabosrption | juxtamedullary |
| the short or no loops of Henle that do not contribute to hypertonic medullary interstitium | cortical |
| what is the juxtaglomerular apparatus composed of | macula densa, juxtaglomerular cells, and extraglomerular messenger cells |
| where are the macula densa cells located what do they do | distal convulated tubule, sense changes in the NaCl content of the filtrate and also help regulate sodium balance and blood pressure |
| where are the juxtaglomerular cells located and what do they do | afferent arteriole, secrete renin - enzyme that influences sodium balance and blood pressure |
| where are the mesangial cells located and what do they do | in the middle where everything meets, helps in regulation of ion and water balance and blood pressure |
| explain what happens if the mesangial cells sense low NaQ in the filtrate | sign of low blood volume, they communicate to the jux. cells to produce renin = more H2O reabsorption |
| what are the three basic components of renal function | glomerular filtration, tubular secretion, tubular reabsorption, |
| what does the glomerular filtration do | moves substances from the glomerulus into Bowman's capsle |
| what does tubular secretion do | transports substance from the peritubular capillaries in the renal capillaries |
| what does tubular reabsorption do | moves substance from the renal tubules in the peritubular capillaries |
| three layers of the glomerular filtration | capillary endothelium, noncellular layer of basement membrane, and the single celled epithelial lining of Bowman's capsule |
| through what two transports can reabsorption occur | transcellular and paracellular |
| describe the transceullar rute of tubular reabsorption | luminal membrane, basolateral membrane, renal interstitial fluid, peritubular capillaries |
| describe the paracellular route of tubular reabsorption | tight junctions, renal interstitial fluid, peritubular capillaries |
| what is tubular secretion an important mechanism for | disposing drugs, eliminating undesired substances, removing excess K+ and controlling blood pH |
| what should urine not contain | RBC's, WBC's, glucose, amino acids, protein, bilirubin, and ketones |
| high salt equals? | high water, high body fluid, and high blood pressure |
| what is the division of labor in the tubules that is universal for everyone | glomerular filtration by the renal corpuscle, reabsoption by the proximal tubule, and reabsorption by the loop of henle |
| what is specifc labor that isn't universal for everyone | distal segments, regulated by hromones and depends on the bodies needs |
| regulation of reabsorption and secretion is controlled by | hormones, tubular factors, local |
| where does sodium reabsorption not occur in the tubular segments | descending loop of henle |
| what does water move through | aquaporin channels |
| renal locations of Na reabsorption | most in proximal tube, some in ascending limb of loop of Henle, and very small amount through hormone regulation in the distal tubule and collecting duct (last chance to save what you need in the body) |
| what are the mechanisms for reabsorption in the proximal tubule | cotransport and countertransport |
| what is the mechanism for reabosrption in the ascending limb of the loop of henle | cotransport, sodium moves into the cells |
| mechanism for Na reabsorption in the distal tubule and cortical collecting duct | regulated by hormones |
| the deeper you go into a nephrone what happens to the osm | it increases |
| describe the medullary gradient | active transport of NaCl in the ascending limb (impermeable to water), water reabsorption via osmosis from the descending limb (impermeable to NaCl), urea recycled from the collecting duct |
| what substances are in the filtrate | water, Na, small molecules, glucose |
| what substance are not in the filtrate | RBC/WBC, proteins, ketones |
| describe osm through the tubes | descending limb 300 - increases till its max is directly at the loop 1400, decreases as it goes up ascending limb 100, decreases a little more at the distal 80, in the collecting duct it increases |
| describe the reabsorption and secretion taking place in the tubules | descending limb water reabsorbed, ascending limb NaCl reabosrbed, medullary collecting duct water reabsorbed, |
| what are two things that the justaglomerulas cells do that lower sodium | constrict afferent arterial = decreases GFR, produces rening = stimulates aldosterone = more salt channels more Na to absorb |
| what happens when they is increased sodium in tubule | justa will dilate to increases GFR, lowers rening and ADH |
| step by step pathway or RAAS | renin is released by justaglomerular cells = liver produces angiotensinogen renin cleaves it into angiotensin I, angiotensin I changed to angiotensin II, angiotensin II = vasoconstriction, stimulates aldosterone release and ADH |
| where is aldosterone released from, what does it do | adrenal cortex, increaes sodium reabsortption in distal nephron |
| where is ADH released from what does it do | posterior pituitary, increases water reabsorption in collecting ducts |
| what happens when there is more N reabsorption | more K gets secreted/excreted |
| what do ace inhibitors/ ang II blockers do | treat hypertension by getting rid of the conversion from angiotensin I to II |
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