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Unit 2 psych
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Cognition | All mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, ande communicating. |
| Metacognition | Cognition about our cognition; tracks and evaluates our mental processes. |
| Concept | A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people. |
| Prototype | A mental image of a category. Matching new items into a prototype, aa quick & easy method for storing items into categories. |
| Schema | A concept or framework that organizes and intercepts information. |
| Assimilation | Interpreting new experiences in terms of our existing schemas. |
| Accommodation | Adapting our current schemas (understanding) to incorporate new information. |
| Creativity | The ability to produce new ideas. |
| Converting thinking | Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution. |
| Divergent thinking | Expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions. |
| Executive thinking | Cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implant global behavior. |
| Algorithm | A methodological, logical rule of procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier- but also more error prone- use of heuristics. |
| Heuristics | A simple thinking strategy- a mental shortcut- that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently. |
| Insight | A sudden realization of a problems solution; contrast with strategy- based solutions. |
| Confirmation bias | A tendency a search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or dissort contradictory evidence. |
| Fixation | In cognition, the inability to see a problem from a new perspective: an obstacle in problem solving. |
| Mental set | A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past. |
| Intuition | An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought as contrasted to explicit concious reasoning. |
| Representativness heuristic | judging the likelihood of events in teens oh ho well they seem, represent, or match, particular prototypes. |
| Availability heuristic | judging the likelihood of event based of their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind we presume such events are common. |
| Overconfidence | the tendency to more confident that correct- to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs & judgements. |
| Belief perservance | the persistence of ones initial conceptions even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited. |
| Framing | the way an issue is posed; how and issue in framed can significantly affect decisions and |
| Nudge | framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions and judgments. |
| Memory | the persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information. |
| Recall | a measure of memory in which a person must retrieve information learned earlier, as in a fill-in-the-blank test. |
| Recognotion | A measure of memory in which a person identifies item previously learned, as on a multiple choice test. The "oh yeah" realization. |
| Relearning | A measure of memory that asses the amount of time saved when learning material again. |
| Encoding | the process of getting information into the memory system- for example, by extracting meaning. |
| Storage | The process of retaining encoded information over time. |
| Retrieval | The process of getting information out of memory storage. |
| Parallel Processing | Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously. |
| Sensory memory | The immediate, very brief recoding of sensory information in the memory system. |
| Short-term memory | Briefly activated memory of a few times that is late stored or forgotten. |
| Long-term memory | The relatively permanent, limitless archive of the memory system includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. |
| Alan Baddeley | Suggested a modification to short-term storage, renaming it working in his model |
| Working memory | A newer understanding of a short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both. 1. incoming sensory information 2. information retrieved from long-term memory |
| Central executive | A memory component that coordinates that activities of the phonological loop & visuospatial sketchpad. |
| Phonological loop | A memory component that briefly holds auditory information. |
| Visuospatial sketchpad | a memory component that briefly holds information about objects appearance and location in space. |
| Neurogenesis | the formation of new neurons. |
| Long-term potentiation | an increase in a nerve cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning & memory. |
| Explicit memory | retention of facts & experiences that we can consciously know and "declare" |
| Effortful processing | encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. |
| Automatic processing | unconscious encoding or incidental info, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar information such as sounds, smells, and word meanings. |
| Implicit memory | retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection. (Also known as nondeclarative memory). |
| Iconic memory | a momentary sensor memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more that a few tenths of a second. |
| Echoic memory | a momentary sensory memory of audoitory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can be recalled within 3-4 secs. |
| Chunking | organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. |
| Mnemonics | memory aids/ techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices. |
| Spacing effect | the tendency for distributed study or practice to have yield better long-term retention that is archived through mass study or practice. |
| Testing effect | enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning. |
| Shallow processing | encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words. |
| Deep processing | encoding semantically, based on the words; tends to yield the best retention. |
| Semantic memory | explict memories of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems (other is episodic). |
| Episodic memory | explicit memory of personally experienced event; one o four two conscious memory systems (other is semantic memory). |
| Hippocampus | a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit (conscious) memories- of facts and events for storage. |
| memory consolidation | the neural storage of a long-term memory. |
| flashbulb memory | a clear memory of an emotionally significant movement or event. |
| Priming | the activation, often unconsciously, of associations in memory. |
| Encoding specificity | the idea that cues and context specific to a particular memory will be mostly effective in helping us recall it. |
| Serial position effect | the tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially and the first items in a list after a delay. |
| mood- congruent memory | the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's good or bad mood. |
| Interleaving | a retrieval strategy that involves mixing the study of different topics. |
| Anterograde amnesia | an inability to form new memories. |
| Retrograde amnesia | an inability to remember information from one’s past. |
| Proactive interference | the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information. |
| Retroactive interference | the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information. |
| Repression | in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories. |
| Reconsolidation | a process by which previously stored memories, when retrieved, are potentially altered before being stored again. |
| Misinformation effect: | occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information. |
| Source amnesia | faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source). Source amnesia, along with misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories. |
| Déjà vu | that eerie sense that “I’ve experienced this before.” Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger the retrieval of an earlier experience. |
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