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BIOL 1406- Final
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| What is the Scientific Method? | a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses. |
| What is a hypothesis? | a specific, testable, and educated guess or proposed explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or problem |
| What is a null hypothesis? | a statement that there is no significant effect, difference, or relationship between variables in an experiment |
| What is the independent variable? | the factor that a scientist deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment to test its effect on another variable |
| What is the dependent variable? | the outcome or effect being measured in an experiment |
| What are replicates and why are they important? | repeated experiments or measurements under similar conditions, crucial for confirming results, assessing variability, and ensuring scientific findings are reliable and not due to chance or error |
| When you analyze your data can you prove your hypothesis? | no, you generally can't prove a hypothesis true with data analysis |
| What is a controlled expriement? | when you manipulate one factor while holding other variables constant |
| What is a comparative experiment? | when you compare data gathered from populations that differ in multiple ways |
| What is inductive logic? | it uses observations or facts to develop a tentative answer or hypothesis |
| What is deductive logic? | it is used to predict what facts would also have to be true to be compatible with the hypothesis |
| What are the main parts of the cell theory? | 1) all living things are made of cells 2) the cell is the basic unit of life 3) all cells come from pre- existing cells |
| What is qualitative data? | non-numerical information describing qualities, characteristics, and experiences |
| What is quantitative data? | information that can be counted, measured, and expressed with numbers, answering questions like "how many," "how much," or "how often," |
| What is inductive reasoning and example? | pecific examples> general conclusion: you see dark clouds, thunder, and strong wind → you conclude it’s probably going to rain. |
| What is deductive reasoning and example? | general rule> specific example: since all mammals breathe air and a dolphin is a mammal, a dolphin must breathe air. |
| What is the scientific def of a theory? | a well-tested, evidence-supported explanation for a natural phenomenon. It is backed by data, experiments, and repeated observations. |
| What is the everyday def of a theory? | a guess, idea, or hunch about why something happens without evidence |
| What is the domain Bacteria? | contains prokaryotic cells (no nucleus), includes common bacteria like E. Coli, salmonella, and strep |
| What is the domain Archea? | contains prokaryotic cells, live in extreme conditions, methanogens, halophiles, thermophiles. |
| What is the domain Eukarya? | contains eukaryotic cells (membrane bound organelles and nucleus), includes plants, animals, fungi, and protista |
| What does evolution mean? | results in change in the genetic makeup of populations over time |
| What is populations? | groups of individuals of the same species that interbreed? |
| Evolution basics: | Charles Darwin proposed that all organisms are descended from a common ancestor, argued that differential survival and reproduction in a population (natural selection) couldaccount for much of the evolution of life. |
| What is the feedback system? | a process in the body where the outcome of an action is used to control or adjust that same action, helps maintain homeostasis |
| What is negative feedback? | the body reduces or reverses a change to keep conditions stable, your body temperature rises → you sweat → sweating cools you down → temperature returns to normal |
| What is positive feedback? | the body increases or amplifies a change instead of reversing it, childbirth, contractions cause more oxytocin release → stronger contractions → more oxytocin → until the baby is born. |
| What is natural selection? | the differential survival and reproduction of individuals based on variation in their traits |
| Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells | Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus, Eukaryotic cells have membrane bound organelles, Eukaryotic cells are larger and more complex |
| What is matter? | anything that has mass and takes up space |
| What is an atom? | smallest unit of life, protons, neutrons, electrons |
| What is an atomic number? | number of protons in atoms nucleus |
| What is an atomic mass? | total mass of atom, made up of protons and neutrons |
| What is an isotope? | version of an element with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons |
| What is the octet rule? | atoms are most stable with 8 electrons in the outer shell |
| What is a valence number? | amount/ number of electrons in outermost shell |
| What is electronegativity? | an atoms ability to attract electrons in a chemical bond |
| What is an element? | pure substance made of one kind of atom |
| What is a compound? | a substance made of two or more elements that are chemically bonded together |
| What are the parts of an atom? | protons (positive), neutrons (neutral), electrons (negative) |
| What do the rows of a periodic table tell you? | called periods, tell you the number of energy levels ( electron shells) |
| What do the columns of a periodic table tell you? | called groups or families, tell you the number of valence electrons |
| What is an ionic bond? | chemical bond where electrons are shared with another atom, ex: Na loses one electrons (Na+), Cl gains one electron (Cl-) together they form table sale (NaCl) |
| What is a covalent bond? | chemical bond where atoms share electrons to fill an outer electron shell, ex: H2O, each hydrogen shares an electron with the oxygen |
| Nonpolar VS Polar covalent bonds | Nonpolar: equally shared electrons, small electronegativity difference, no change distribution Polar: unequally shared electrons, moderate electronegativity difference, partial positive and negative charges |
| What is a hydrogen bond? | a weak attraction between a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to a highly electronegative atom (oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine) |
| What is a polar molecule? | a molecule with a slightly positive end and a slightly negative end due to unequal sharing of electrons in a covalent bond |
| What two types of bond holds water molecules together? | covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds |
| What type of bond holds the oxygen and hydrogen atoms within a molecule of water together? | a covalent bond |
| What are the important properties of water? | cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat, high heat of vaporization, universal solvent, ice floats, polarity |
| What is adhesion? | the property of water to stick to other surfaces |
| What is cohesion? | the property of water to stick to itself |
| Why does ice float? | because ice is less dense than water |
| Why does salt dissolve in water but oil does not? | polarity, water is polar and salt is ionic> it dissolves oil is nonpolar> does not dissolve. |
| What is Chromatography and how does it separate the components of a mixture/ solution? | a technique used to separate the components of a mixture based on how they move through a medium. |
| What are acidic solutions pH? | less than 7, ex: lemon juice~2, vinegar ~3 |
| What are neutral solutions pH? | 7, ex: pure water= 7 |
| What are basic/ alkaline solutions pH? | more than 7, ex: baking soda~ 8, ammonia~ 11 |
| What is a buffer and how does it work? | it resists change in pH when small amounts of an acid or base are added together |
| How to calculate concentrations of H+ or OH- ions | [H+] x [OH-] = 1 x 10^-14 |
| How to calculate pH and pOH | pH+pOH = 14 |
| Describe the binding capacities (valences) of C,H,O,N | carbon forms 4 bonds, hydrogen 1, oxygen 2, and nitrogen 3. These valences show how many covalent bonds each atom can make to fill its outer shell and form stable molecules. |
| List 3 types of isomers and define them | Structural- same formula, different arrangements Cis-Trans- same formula, different bonding Optical- molecules are mirror images of each other |
| List the 4 major types of organic molecules and macromoles | carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids |
| What is a monomer? | small simple molecule that can join with other monomers to create polymers (large molecule) |
| What is a polymer? | large molecule made by linking together monomers (small molecules) |
| What are the four key functions of a saccharides (carbohydrates)? | energy support, energy storage, structural support, cell recognition/ signaling |
| What functional groups defines a reducing sugar? | by having -CHO or ketone (C=O) group |
| What type of monomers make up disaccharides and starches? | disaccharides- two or more monosaccharides bonded together with a glycosidic bond starches- many glucose molecules |
| How do starches differ from disaccharides? | Starches are long term energy, disaccharides are short term energy |
| What is dehydration synthesis? | a chemical reaction in which monomers are joined together to form a polymer by removing a molecule |
| What is a condensation synthesis? | same as dehydration synthesis, monomers are joined together to form a polymer by removing a molecule |
| What are some of the major functions of proteins? | structural support, enzymes, transport, defense, signaling, movement |
| What type of monomers make up protein? | amino acids |
| What kind of functional groups do amino acids have? | amino group, carboxyl group (-COOH), and variable group |
| What are the monomers in triglyceride? | glycerol (a three- carbon alcohol with hydroxyl (-OH) groups), fatty acids (long hydrocarbon chains with carboxyl (-COOH) groups) |
| What class of lipids stores more energy than any other kind of biomolecules? | fats |
| What is the difference between a fat and a oil? | fats are solid at room temp and oils are liquid at room temp, fats are made of saturated fatty acids (no double bonds) and oils are made of unsaturated fatty acids (double bonds) |
| What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated lipids? | saturated: no double bonds, solid at room temp, chains are straight unsaturated: double bonds, liquid at room temp, chains are kinked |
| What category of molecules are phospholipids? | lipid, two fatty acid tails and phospholipid head |
| What category of molecule is a steroid? | lipid |
| What are the 4 levels of structure for proteins? | Primary: amino acid sequence Secondary: local folding into α-helices or β-sheets Tertiary: 3D shape from R-group interactions Quaternary: multiple polypeptides forming a functional protein. |
| What factors affect the initial folding and stability of proteins? | hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bonds, temp, pH, salt concentration |
| What environmental factors can affect the structure of a protein? | temp, pH, salt concentration, and organic solvents or chemicals |
| What does denature mean? | means a protein loses its shape due to change in temp, pH, or other environmental factors |
| What are the differences between DNA and RNA? | DNA has deoxyribose sugar, is double-stranded, and contains the bases A, T, C, and G; it stores genetic information. RNA has ribose sugar, is single-stranded, contains A, U, C, and G, and helps transfer genetic information to make proteins. |
| What category of molecules are DNA and RNA? | nucleic acids |
| What is a prokaryotic cell? | a cell without a nucleus or nucleus bound organelles, bacteria and archea |
| What is a eukaryotic cell? | a cell with a nucleus and membrane bound organelles, fungi, plants, animals, and protists |
| What are the differences between plant and animal cells? | plant cells have cell walls, chloroplast, and large vacuoles |
| What are some argument supporting the bacterial origin of mitochondria and chloroplast? | they have their own dna, can divide, and have structural and genetic similarities to bacteria |
| What is the nucleus? | control center, holds dna |
| What are the ribosomes? | make proteins, floats in cytoplasm or attaches to rough er |
| What is the endoplasmic reticulum? | make and transport proteins and lipids, rough er: has ribosomes, makes proteins smooth er: no ribosomes, makes lipids |
| What is the golgi apparatus? | sorts, modifies, and transports proteins and lipids |
| What are the lysosomes? | break down waste, old parts of the cell, and harmful materials using digestive enzymes |
| What are the vacuoles? | store water waste and nutrients (plants have large one and animals have small ones) |
| What are the peroxisomes? | breaks down harmful substances and fatty acids, producing hydrogen peroxide and converting to water |
| What is the mitochondria? | cells powerhouse, make energy (ATP) through cellular respiration |
| What are chloroplast? | in plant cells only, capture sunlight and turn it into energy using photosynthesis, contain green pigment called chlorophyll |
| What are intercellular junctions in plant cells? | plasmodesmata, tiny channels that connect plant cells and allow nutrients, water, and signals to pass to one cell to another. help communicate and work together |
| What are tight junctions? | in animal cells, sealing neighboring cells together and prevent substances from leaking between cells |
| What are desmosomes? | in animal cells, anchors cells together like rivets |
| What are gap junctions? | in animal cells, channels that connect cells together, allows ions and small molecules to pass between cells for communication |
| What are phospholipids and their function? | molecules that make up the cell membrane, hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail, phospholipid bilayer that controls what goes in and out of the cell |
| What are glycoproteins and their function? | proteins with carbohydrate chains attached, cell recognition, communication, and signaling |
| What are glycolipids and their function? | lipids with carbohydrate chains attached, cell recognition, communication, and signaling, helps identify cells to each other |
| What are transport proteins? | moves molecules across membrane (channels and carriers) |
| What are receptor proteins? | receives signals (hormones, neurotransmitters) and triggers cell response |
| What are cell recognition proteins? | identifies cells using glycoproteins (important for immunity) |
| What are enzymatic protein? | speed up chemical reaction at membrane |
| What are anchoring proteins? | helps cells link together or link to cytoskeleton |
| What are junction proteins? | forms connections between cells |
| What is passive transport? | no energy needed, substances move down concentration gradient |
| What is active transport? | requires energy, moves against concentration gradient |
| What is endocytosis? | the process of taking in large molecules in through the membrane |
| what is exocytosis? | the release of large molecules or waste through the membrane |
| What is semi-fluid membrane? | the flexible membrane, not rigid, allowing proteins and lipid to move laterally |
| What are the factors that affecting fluidity? | length of fatty acid tails, presence of cholesterols, presence of unsaturated, temperature |
| What is diffusion? | movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration |
| What is osmosis? | diffusion of water molecules |
| What is a hypertonic solution? | a hypertonic solution has a higher solute concentration, CELL SHRINKS |
| What is a hypotonic solution? | a hypotonic solution has a lower solute concentration, CELL GROWS/ BURSTS |
| What is an isotonic solution? | an isotonic solution has the same solute concentration, CELL REMAINS THE SAME |
| What is plasmolysis? | cell loses water in hypertonic solution and cell shrinks |
| What are the 3 methods of direct communication in animal cells? | plasmodesmata, cell-to-cell, electric signals |
| Describe the 3 phases of cell signaling | 1. reception 2. transduction 3. response |
| List the three categories of membrane proteins that functions are receptors in the process of cell signaling? | g-proteins, receptor tyrosine kinases, gated ion channels |
| What is the difference between intracellular receptors and membrane receptors in cell signaling? | Intracellular receptors: inside, for molecules that enter cell, affect genes directly. Membrane receptors: on surface, for molecules outside cell, trigger signaling cascades. |
| What are the 3 responses that result from cell signalling? | gene expression changes, alteration of protein activity, cellular behavior changes |
| What are 2 components that all viruses have? | genetic material and protein capsid |
| Why do most scientist not consider viruses to be alive? | cannot reproduce, cannot metabolize, and lack cell structure |
| What is the lytic cycle of bacteriophages? | short, 1. attachment 2. entry 3. replication 4. assembly 5. lysis |
| What is the lysogenetic cycle of bacteriophages? | long, 1. attachment and entry 2. integration 3. replication 4. induction |
| What types of genetic material can viruses have? | DNA and RNA |
| How are viruses classified in terms of their genetic material? | DNA viruses, RNA viruses, |
| List the three categories of membrane proteins that functions are receptors in the process of cell signaling? | g-proteins, receptor tyrosine kinases, gated ion channels |
| What is the difference between intracellular receptors and membrane receptors in cell signaling? | Intracellular receptors: inside, for molecules that enter cell, affect genes directly. Membrane receptors: on surface, for molecules outside cell, trigger signaling cascades. |
| What are the 3 responses that result from cell signalling? | gene expression changes, alteration of protein activity, cellular behavior changes |
| What are 2 components that all viruses have? | genetic material and protein capsid |
| Why do most scientist not consider viruses to be alive? | cannot reproduce, cannot metabolize, and lack cell structure |
| What is the lytic cycle of bacteriophages? | short, 1. attachment 2. entry 3. replication 4. assembly 5. lysis |
| What is the lysogenetic cycle of bacteriophages? | long, 1. attachment and entry 2. integration 3. replication 4. induction |
| What types of genetic material can viruses have? | DNA and RNA |
| How are viruses classified in terms of their genetic material? | DNA viruses, RNA viruses, retroviruses (type of rna that uses reverse transcriptase) |
| What is the infectious cycle of retrovirus? | 1. attachment and entry 2. reserve transcription 3. integration 4. transcription and translation 5. assembly 6. release |
| What is prophage? | viral DNA in bacteria, has been integrated into the host bacteria during lysogenic cycle |
| What is virulent phage? | a bacteriophages that only follows the lytic cycle? |
| What are the first 2 laws of thermodynamics and explain how living things obey these laws? | law of conservation and law of entropy |
| Categorize dehydration synthesis reactions, hydrolysis reactions, photosynthesis, and cellular respiration as either exergonic or endergonic? | Endergonic: dehydration synthesis, photosynthesis Exergonic: hydrolysis, cellular respiration |
| Given an endergonic or exergonic process/ reaction, predict what will happen to entropy and free energy levels | Exergonic: free energy decreases, entropy increases Endergonic: free energy increases, entropy decreases |
| How are exergonic and endergonic reactions are couple via energy intermediates? | cells use energy carriers (atp and nadh) to transfer energy to energy releasing reactions to energy requiring reactions |
| What is the structure of ATP? | adenine- a nitrogenous base ribose- a five carbon sugar 3 phosphate groups- link in a chain with high energy bonds |
| How does the cycling of ATP provide energy for chemical, transport, and mechanical work in a cell? | ATP releases energy → powers chemical, transport, and mechanical work → regenerated for reuse. |
| How do enzymes work to speed up a reaction? | enzymes lower the activation energy, stabilize the reaction, and speed up product formation without it being used up |
| What are the four levels of structure of a protein enzyme and how can they be denatured? | Primary: amino acid sequence Secondary: α-helix/β-sheet Tertiary: 3D folding Quaternary: multiple subunits Denatured by: heat, pH changes, salts, detergents, or chemicals. |
| How does pH, temp, substrate concentration, and enzyme concentration affect the rate of reaction? | pH & temp: too high/low → denature → slow Substrate conc.: more → faster until saturation Enzyme conc.: more → faster if substrate available |
| What is denature and when and how does it happen? | Protein/enzyme loses shape → can’t work → caused by heat, pH, or chemicals. |
| What is competitive inhibition? | inhibitor competes with substrate for active site, slows reaction rate |
| What is a noncompetitive inhibition? | inhibitor binds somewhere else and changes enzyme shape so substrate cannot bind |
| Where in the cell does glycolysis occur? | cytoplasm |
| What goes into glycolysis? | glucose, 2 NAD+, 2 ATP, 2 ADP and 2 inorganic proteins |
| What are the products of glcolysis? | 2 net ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate |
| Where in the cell does the kreb cycle occur? | matrix of the mitochondria |
| What goes into the kreb cycle? | Acetyl-CoA, NAD+, FAD, ADP and 1 inorganic protein, water |
| What are the products of the kreb cycle? | 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, 2ATP, 4 CO2 |
| Where in the cell does the electron transport chain occur? | inner mitochondrial membrane |
| What goes into the electron transport chain? | NADH, FAD, ADP and one inorganic protein, H+ |
| What comes out of the electron transport chain? | 28-24 ATP per glucose molecule |
| How many ATP molecules are produced in glycolysis? | 2 ATP per glucose molecule |
| How many ATP are formed during complete aerobic cellular respiration for each glucose molecule? | 30-38 ATP per glucose molecule |
| Why must cells take in oxygen and release CO2? | O2 is needed to make ATP efficiently, and CO2 must be removed as waste from glucose metabolism |
| What is the difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration? | aerobic: needs air, produces ~36 ATP per glucose anaerobic: no oxygen, produces 2 ATP per glucose, forms lactic acid or ethanol |
| Why is aerobic respiration more efficient than anaerobic respiration? | because oxygen allows to complete break down of glucose to produce more ATP |
| When a molecule accepts an electron, is it chemically reduced or oxidized? | reduced |
| Why do cells undergo fermentation? | when oxygen is not avaiable |
| What is lactic acid fermentation? | occurs in animal muscle cells, pyruvate is converted to lactic acid, regenerates NAD+ |
| What is alcohol fermentation? | occurs in yeast and some bacteria, pyruvate is converted to ethanol and CO2, regenerates NAD+ |
| What metabolic process can occur in the presence and/ or the absences of fermentation? | Glycolysis |
| What types of cells are capable of photosynthesis? | plant cells, some algae, and some bacteria |
| Where in eukaryotic cells does photosynthesis occur? | in the choloroplast |
| What are the two main reactions in photosynthesis called? | light dependent and light independent reactions |
| Where do the light dependent reactions occur? | thylakoid membrane |
| What goes into the light reactions? | light, water, NADH+, ADP |
| What are the products of light reactions? | ATP, NADPH, O2 |
| Where do the light independent reactions occur? | stroma of the choloroplast |
| What goes into the light independent reactions? | CO2, ATP, NADPH |
| What are the products of the light independent reactions? | glucose, ADP, NADP+ |
| Are there any other names for the light independent reactions? | dark reaction |
| Why are plants and chlorophyll green? | absorbs red and blue wavelength |
| How does having multiples photosynthesis pigments affects a plants ability to synthesize glucose? | absorb a wider range of light waves |
| Where does the oxygen come from in photosynthesis? | water |
| What is the best color of light for photosynthesis? | red and blue |
| How do pigments work? | absorbing certain wavelengths and reflecting others |
| Why do plants have more than one pigment? | plants have more than one pigment to capture a wider range of light wavelengths |
| What happens if a plant gets too hot and dry? | stoma closes, water stress, denature chlorophyll, wilting |
| What are the difference between C3, C4, and CAM plants? | C3: standard photosynthesis; less efficient in hot/dry conditions due to photorespiration. C4: spatial separation of steps; reduces photorespiration in hot climates. CAM: temporal separation (night/day) to conserve water in deserts. |
| What are some of the way that binary fission differs from eukaryotic mitosis? | binary fission is simpler and faster, while mitosis has more steps |
| How are binary fission and eukaryotic mitosis alike? | both forms of cell division, produce genetically identical daughter cells, replicate DNA before dividing, distribute DNA |
| What are the stages in the eukaryotic cell cycle? | G1, S, G2, M, Cytokenesis |
| What are the stages in interphase? | G1 (cell grows),S (DNA is replicated), G2 (grows) |
| What are the stages of mitosis? | prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase |
| What is the purpose of mitosis? | produce two identical daughter cells, enable growth, repair and replace damaged or dead cells, maintain the same number of chromosomes |
| What type of cells do these divisions occur in? | somatic cells |
| How many chromosomes are present in the G1 stage of interphase and in metaphase? | 46, 46 |
| What is the difference between a chromosome and a chromatid? | chromosome: 1 piece of DNA chromatid: one of the two identical copies of replicated DNA joined together by a centromere |
| What are the difference between mitosis and meiosis? | mitosis: identical body cells meiosis: gamete cells |
| What is the purpose of meiosis? | produce gamete cells (sperm and eggs) |
| What type of cells does meiosis occur in? | gamete cells ( sex cells) |
| What are the stages of meiosis? | Anaphase II – sister chromatids separate Telophase II – 4 unique haploid cell |
| What are the products of the light independent reactions? | glucose, ADP, NADP+ |
| Are there any other names for the light independent reactions? | dark reaction |
| Why are plants and chlorophyll green? | absorbs red and blue wavelength |
| How does having multiples photosynthesis pigments affects a plants ability to synthesize glucose? | absorb a wider range of light waves |
| Where does the oxygen come from in photosynthesis? | water |
| What is the best color of light for photosynthesis? | red and blue |
| How do pigments work? | absorbing certain wavelengths and reflecting others |
| Why do plants have more than one pigment? | plants have more than one pigment to capture a wider range of light wavelengths |
| What happens if a plant gets too hot and dry? | stoma closes, water stress, denature chlorophyll, wilting |
| What are the difference between C3, C4, and CAM plants? | C3: standard photosynthesis; less efficient in hot/dry conditions due to photorespiration. C4: spatial separation of steps; reduces photorespiration in hot climates. CAM: temporal separation (night/day) to conserve water in deserts. |
| What are some of the way that binary fission differs from eukaryotic mitosis? | binary fission is simpler and faster, while mitosis has more steps |
| How are binary fission and eukaryotic mitosis alike? | both forms of cell division, produce genetically identical daughter cells, replicate DNA before dividing, distribute DNA |
| What are the stages in the eukaryotic cell cycle? | G1, S, G2, M, Cytokenesis |
| What are the stages in interphase? | G1 (cell grows),S (DNA is replicated), G2 (grows) |
| What are the stages of mitosis? | prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase |
| What is the purpose of mitosis? | produce two identical daughter cells, enable growth, repair and replace damaged or dead cells, maintain the same number of chromosomes |
| What type of cells do these divisions occur in? | somatic cells |
| How many chromosomes are present in the G1 stage of interphase and in metaphase? | 46, 46 |
| What is the difference between a chromosome and a chromatid? | chromosome: 1 piece of DNA chromatid: one of the two identical copies of replicated DNA joined together by a centromere |
| What are the difference between mitosis and meiosis? | mitosis: identical body cells meiosis: gamete cells |
| What is the purpose of meiosis? | produce gamete cells (sperm and eggs) |
| What type of cells does meiosis occur in? | gamete cells ( sex cells) |
| What are the stages of meiosis? | Meiosis I Prophase I – chromosomes pair & cross over Metaphase I – homologs line up Anaphase I – homologs separate Telophase I – 2 haploid cells |
| In human cells, how ma ny chromosomes and chromatid are present in a cell in prophase 1, after telophase 1, after telophase 2? | 46,92/23,46/ 23,23 |
| What are the benefits to exchanging genetic material between homologous chromosomes? | increase diversity, evolution, reduces mutation? |
| What is nondisjunction? | error in cell division where chromosomes dont separate properly |
| What is aneuploidy? | abnormal number of chromosomes |
| What is polyploidy? | more than 2 complete sets of chromosomes |
| What types of disorders are examples of non-disjunction in humans? | down syndrome, turner syndrome |
| What is a gene? | DNA sequence for a code trait |
| What are allele? | different forms a gene |
| What is a phenotype? | what you can see |
| What is a genotype? | alleles an organism |
| What is hybrid? | heterozygous organism with different alleles |
| What is true breeding? | homozygous, passing on same traits |
| What is homozygous? | same alleles |
| What is heterozygous? | different alleles |
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