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archaeology
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| In domesticated animals, individuals are ____________ their wild ancestors | smaller than |
| what was not a primary center for the development of agriculture | europe |
| what does MNI stand for | minimum number of indivduals |
| how can archaeologists determine the overall shape of a pottery vessel? | by studying the shape of the rim |
| what is commonly found preserved in the matrix, and on pottery and stone tools, minute particles of silica derived from plant cells | phytoliths |
| who was responsible for proposing the oasis hypothesis to explain the origins of agriculture | v gordon childe |
| how were they able to determine where they bured individuals had grown up in the headless romans? | by analyzing the isotopes in their bones/teeth |
| what are the 4 primary attributes that artifacts posses? | raw material, technology, function, styles |
| what are thee decorations typically found on ceramics | incised lines, net impressions, cord impressoins, punctation |
| what are segmentary socities | generally larger than MHG, sedentary, rarely number more than a few thousand, lack permanent difference of ocial status between people |
| what are indirect ways to study past subsistence | environmental reconstruction, human skeletal remains, settlement patterns, technology |
| who was responsible for proposing the hilly flanks or natural zone hypothesis | robert braidwood |
| what are faunal remains | the remains of animals, such as deer, sheep, or cows, found on arcaheological sites that help us build a picture of past human diet |
| what does NOT help when determine the season a site was occupied based on food | when the food available was items that are highly storable for a long period of time |
| What does ceramic residue analysis NOT allow | archaeolgists to determine the amount of pottery dust that will remain AFTER 5,730 years |
| What can studying bone isotopes form humans/animals help determine | in what geographic region they grew up |
| what was NOT important in mesoamerican agricultural soceities | domesticated animals |
| What was the edge zone hypothesis | agriculture began on the outside of fertile areas due to increased populations and population pressure. |
| What can archaeologists determine from the residue from the inside of pots analyzed | the use if a particular ceramic vessel |
| what do arcaheologists find at temporary camps of MHG instead of formal tools | more expeideint tools and utilized flakes |
| what do archaeologists think were the first plants to become domesticated | plants like herbs that were used to make the wild foods taste better |
| what does NISP stand for | number of identifible specimens |
| what does coprolites mean | studying fecal remains |
| what is floral analysis | archeobotany, plant remains |
| examples of microbotanical plant evidence | pollen analysis, starch grains, and the anayliss of phytoliths in plant cells |
| examples of macrobotanical plant evidence | seed and nutshell fragments, wood charcoal anaylsis |
| what does zooarchaeology allow for the reconstruction of | subsistence, environment, and other culturla practices |
| what are faunal remains | the enimal ecofacts found in archaeological contexts, though not always possible |
| what is the order of the taxnomic classification system | kindgom - phylum - class - order - gamily - genus - species |
| what are ways to determine past species | comparing to modern species, and using diagnostic skeletal elements |
| what species are better represented in the record | species with more bones, smaller animals, species with easily diagnostic bones, specues with bones that remain diagnostic even when fragmented |
| what is an issue when quantifying faunal remains? | not only humans cause bones to accumulate in sites |
| given the example below, what is the MNI and NISP 3 right femur 6 vertebrae 2 left tibia 4 left humeri 15 total bones | NISP = 15 MNI = 4 |
| how can we determine sex of an individual | sexual dimorphism, difference in skeletal parts (antlers on cervids, penis bones) |
| how can we determine the age of an individual | tooth eruption patterns, tooth wear, cementum annuli counring (gives is age and season at death), epiphyseal fusion, fish scales. |
| what is cementum annuli | the method of aging mammals, especially deer, by counting annual growth rings in the cementum layer on tooth roots |
| how can we determine seasonality | what species were available - antler shedding- fixed birthing months |
| what is archaeobotany | the study of plant remains |
| what does archaeobotany allow the reconstructino of | subsistence, environment, and other cultural practices |
| what are the types of botanical remains | macrobotanical and microbotanical remains, intentional and unintentional remains |
| what are indirect ways to study subsistence residue | starch grains, fats, proteins, resins |
| what is the ratio of 12C and 13C in the atmospehere | 12C - 99% 13C - 1% |
| what plants metabolize at the same ratio on the atmosphere | C-3 |
| ratio of C-4 plants | 12C - 99.9% 13C - 0.01% |
| examples of C-3 plants | legumes and vegetables |
| examples of C-4 plants | grasses - wheat, barely, corn |
| when was the start of agriculture | the end of the pleistocene - the era of the last ice age |
| definition of culture | non-biological adaptation to our natural and social environments |
| what is the definition of domestication | the taming of wild plants and animals by humans - changed the physical characteristics of the plant or animal, plant or anial becomes genetically modified due to human behavior |
| what is the definition of cultivation | human manipulation or fostering of a plant species to enhance or ensure production |
| what are examples of cultivation | maintenance and help: clearing fields, preparing soil, weeding, potecting, providing water |
| examples of seed crops | cereals and starchy seed crops lik wheat barely, rice. hard shell seeds, sexual reproduction (genetic mutations), resistance to decay |
| examples of root crops | tubers and rhizomes like potatoes, yams, taro. soft fleshy material, asexual reproduction, less resistant to decay (difficult to see domesticatin in archaeological record) |
| what is a primary center | locations where individual species were first domesticated |
| what WERE the primary centers | SW Asia, E asia, sub-saharan africa, mexico, s america |
| what is a secondary center | an area of agricultural development that recieved domesticates from somewhere else |
| what were the locations of domestication | eastern woodlands (n. america), mesoamerica (mexico) central andes( s. america), neotropics (s. america), fertile cresent (asia) yellow and tangtze rivers (asia) |
| how can we recognize domesticated plants | plant morphology, larger domesticated plants - keeping bigger seeds |
| how can we recognize domesticated animals | smaller when domesticated, pattern of how they're being used (mortality profile), products in vessels that would come form animals |
| what are the theories for the origins of agriculture | oasis theory, natural habitat or hilly flanks hypothesis, population pressure hypothesis, social hypothesis |
| what was the oasis theory | vegetation only grew in certain limited areas of water availability, so people, plants, and animals concentrated in those areas |
| what was the natural habitat or hilly flanks hypothesis | domestication will occur in the natural habitat of the wild species. |
| what was the population pressure hypothesis | in part with the edge zone hypothsis, population increases lead to population pressure on resources, which led to the domestication happening on the margins on the natural habitats |
| what was the social hypothesis | accumulatino of a surplus of food |
| who created tge populatino pressure or edge zone hypothesis | lewis binford |
| who created the social hypothesis | barbara bender and brian hayden |
| which came first between sedentism and agriculture | depends on the location and the species available |
| sedentism in SW asia | sedentism comes first ~11,000 BC followed by plant domestication ~9,000 BC then animas ~8,500 BC and pottery ~7,500 BC |
| domesticatino in mesoamerica | domestic plants ~5,000 BC; permanent villages several 1,000 years later, domesticated animals never an important focus |
| what are the basic roles of soceity | age and gender (sex) |
| what are other biases within society | marriage, economy, and political |
| what are the levels of organization? | family/household, lineage, clans, and kinship |
| what is a lineage | genealogies, lines of descent that exten relationships and determine membership in a group. they descend from a common ancestor |
| what is a clan | several lineages - descendant from some ancestor or diety (wolf clan) |
| kinship | defines the relationship between individuals in soceity based on family ties |
| characteristics of MHG groups | small scale societies, <100 people, egalitarian, informal leadership; just influence, mobile populations, little terriotriality, rely on naturally available plants and animals for survival, division of labr on age/sex lines |
| how to distinguish MHG | small temporary sites, not many artifacts, limited assemblage of artifacts, no evidence of craft specialization or elaborate ceremonies |
| characteristics of segmentary soceities | tribes, few 100s of people, independent communities integrated through kinship, typically settled villages based on agriculture, can be nomadic based on animal herding, no one community dominates the others, leaders have more influence but still no power |
| how to distinguish segmentary societies | larger sites, evidence for group labor projects, evidence of sedentary, permanent villages, evidence of more elaborate ceremonies, evidence of territoriality, evidence of cemeteries |
| what is achieved status | status based on one's deeds and abiliteis |
| ascribed status | status that is inherited and that you have from birth |
| characteristics of chiefdoms | ranked soceity based kinship linages are ranked on a scale of prestige 5k20k people settled agriculture craft specialization settlement heirarchy w/ a center of power redistributive economy w/ tribute ritural + ceremony flow presitge goods ascribed status |
| ranked definition | fewer positions that those to fill them, positinos are fixed and permanent offices, ascribed status, inherited position in a descent group, everyone ranked relative to everyone else - first born of highest ranked group is highest position |
| startified definition | different positions, with differing power, differential access to critical resources and means of production, can rise above station |
| what makes a chiefdom | they have elites, the way elites maintain themselves, elites control access to valuaable goods, other regions, and the gods |
| mortuary segregation and differentiation | look for differences along sex lines and age lines and in treatment of body on position and orientation. in grave goods; types of goods, origins of goods (where did they come from) symbolic meaning of goods, labor expanded on graces presence of symbols |
| characterization of states | difference of scale and centralization, large in geographical extent and population, centralized bureaucracy, societal relatinoships are not based soley on kinship, similar to chiefdoms, but ruler has explicit authority to make and enforce laws |
| characterization of states cont | stratified society with individuals classes arragned hierarchically, tribute based with taxation, urban cities, public buildings |
| what are classes | distinctions in society between groups that define levels, or strata in society |
| what makes a civilization | "urbanied, state level societies" 1. urbanized societies with highly complex social organizatino and substantial geographical territory |
| what makes a civilization cont (start at 2) | 2. economies based on centralized accumulation of capital and social status through tribute and taxation - long distance trade, division of labor, craft specialization 3. advances toward formal record keeping, science, and math |
| what makes a civilization cont (start at 4) | 4. public buildings and minumental architecture 5. state religion in whcih ruler plays a leading role |
| definition of single form of explanation | monocasual - "prime movers" for the origins of state level soceity - one factor |
| definition of multiple form of explanation | multivariate - systems theory |
| what was the surplus and specialization hypothesis | urban revolution, farming -> food surplus -> non-producers. non-producers = specialists (craftspeople, metalworkers, soldiers, priets, bureaucrats. increased surplus -> increased complexity -> increased divisions of wealth -> urbanism and states |
| what was the hydraulic hypothesis | arid environment requires irrigation for successful agriculture, irrigation requires massive labor and organization, elites organize and build irrigation, elites control irrigation systems, control of vital resources |
| what was the long distance trade hypothesis | agriculturally rich areas are poor in other resources, presitge goods are out of non-local materials, need to procure these resources -> long distance trade, development of elites to organize and manage long distance trade networks |
| what was the circumscription hypothesis | intercommunity warfare, agriculture -> population increase, increased population and a circumscribed environment -> populatino pressure -> warfare -> elites and centralized control |
| what was the factional competition hypothesis | monopoly model of state formation. a game of chance and agency (good/bad food = chance) (how you manage, mobolize people to work, reward people, surplus of food and what you do with it = agency) everybody out for themselves, know local conditions = power |
| what is bioarchaeology | the study of human remains form archaeological contexts |
| what is human osteology | the study of human skeletal remains |
| what is an inhumation burial | burial of the body (all intentional) |
| what is a primary burian | burial of the entire body after death |
| what is a secondary burial | reburial, or burial of a partial skeleton |
| example of secondary burial | bundle - body is left to decay, the is collected an buried |
| what is cremation | the burning of the body |
| what is a primary burial for cremtaion | they burn the body in the pit, and then bury the pit; the body is not moved |
| range of bural preservation | very good (bog bodies) -> nothing |
| what is a churnal house | a house that houses physical remains to decay |
| what are flesh pickers | they prepared bodies of the elite. they collected bones and picked off the tissue (had long finger nails) |
| should bodies be excavated? | ONLY if you need a question answered or need to move the body for construction. bodies may not survive leaving the grave |
| how should a burial be recorded | with as MUCH detail as possible. hand-mapping is drawing the grave with high detail -> must have training in archaeology AND art |
| what does sex refer to | the biological traits inlcuding anatomy and physiology that distinguish males from females. is is determined and estimated hy the expression of sex chromosomes |
| what does gender refer to | the cultural nroms and behaviors considered appropriate for men and women in a society. gender varies by culture and often includes diverse expressions beyond a rigid binary |
| how can sex be estimated | by looking at the sexual dimorphism |
| what is sexual dimorphism | they physicla differenced between the sexes, such as size and shape |
| why is the pelvis important for sexual dimorphism | the pelvis shows some of the most pronounced skeletal differences between males and females |
| what are ways to determine age in a skeleton | dental eruption and osteological fusion |
| what is a common way to determine age | dental eruption |
| what is osteological fusoin | the way the ends of bones (an epiphysis) fuse to the central shaft (a diaphysis) |
| what certain health issues can be seen in skeletons and give examples | anemia - cribia orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis. malnourishment - harris lines, enamel hypoplasia. dental health and diet - dental carries (cavaity) tooth wear. |
| what can health of an individual help determine | distinguish diet |
| what are some examples of body modifications that indicate status | bound feet, cranial boarding, tattoos, teeth filling/jewelry |
| what can trauma tell us about an individual | healed or unheald broken bones - possible cause of death |
| what is occupational trauma | change of bones based on activity |
| what can surrgery signs help determine | past medical rpactices |
| what was brain surgery beleived to do | it released pressure, so it was beleived to release demons or spirits within a person |
| what is an example of a past medical belief | tattooing where pain was caused so it would go away or protect the area from further pain |
| definitino of ideology | the means by which people structure their ideas about the universe, their place in the universe, and their relatioonships with each other and other things and beings around them |
| definition of religion | formalized ritual, a beleif system that promosted cosmology, ideology, morals, and values in society |
| definition of a religious ritual | performace of expressive acts of worship which are symbolic, prescribed, and structued behaviors that are often repetitive in nature and related to belief system |
| definition of a cult | a system of patterend actions in response to religious beliefs |
| how is ideology expressed | in ceremony surrounding inportant rites of passage |
| what does ideology often involve | specialists who maintain ritual knowledge. shamans - typically in egalitarian socities. specialists in ritual and healing. priests - typically in hierarchial soceities |
| definition of cosmology | explanations to the origins of the universe, of life, and of society. |
| definition of iconography | the pictorial representations of beliefs, ideas, symbols, and concepts |
| how can rituals be identified | practice of ritural and ceremony produce material remains which can be identified in the archaeological record |
| what does a religious ritual involve | the performace of acts of worship toward the diety or transcendent being |
| what are the 4 main components of a ritual | focusing of attention, boundary zone between this world and next, presence of the diety, and participation and offering |
| what is focusing of attention in a ritual | special spot or building for a ritual. the elements to focus attention are altars, gongs, vessels, censers, and ritual paraphernalia. |
| what. is a boundary area | areas for both public display and hidden exclusive areas (purification and pollution - pools or basins |
| how can a diety be presented in rituals | use of a cult image, use of an abstract form, ritualistic symbols |
| how do people participate and offer in rituals | prayer and special movements, various devices to induce the religious expereince (dance, music, drugs, pain), sacrafice of animals and/or humans, food and drink as offering or consumed, votive offering, investment of wealth |
| what is a votive offering | a gift, object, or action dedicated to a deity or saint out of gratitude, devotion, or to fulfill a vow, |
| what is an artifact | any portable object that has been subjected to modificatoin by past human activity |
| what is grouping | the processes of sorting things into piles of groups of similar objects |
| what is classsification | processes of sorting items into known categories |
| what are the 4 mjaor attributes of artifacts | raw material, technology, function, style |
| and is a type | an archaeological grouping based on a shared set of attributes |
| what is a typology | formal classification for assinging time and space meaning to archaeological materials |
| what is ethnoarcaheology | a subfield where archaeologists study living societies to understand how human behavior creates material culture, helping interpret past archaeological sites |
| what is experimental archaeology | a hands-on research method where archaeologists replicate ancient technologies, tools, structures, and activities to understand past lifeways, material culture, and the formation of the archaeological record |
| why is the analysis of burials important to the study of segemntary societies? | is can reveal disparities in social status, relationships people want to have with the dead based on how the bury them, differences between male and female burials |
| why is it hard to study ethnicity in the archaeological record | there is no easy evidence to analyze, only symbols to establish ethnic groups from others at boundaries of territories |
Created by:
c-sneller