Three stages of transcription

Initiation, Elongation, Termination

Three main sites on ribosomes

A (Aminoacyl), P (Peptidyl), E (Exit)

Outputs of cellular respiration

6 Carbon Dioxide, 6 Water, 30-32 ATP

Products of Krebs Cycle

2 Carbon Dioxide, 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2

Stages of oxidative phosphorylation

Electron Transport Chain, Chemiosmosis

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Biology

Question	Answer
States that DNA creates RNA which creates proteins	Central Dogma
Process of copying DNA before cell division	DNA Replication
DNA replication has this property, where it keep one parent strand	Semi-Conservative
This strand is synthesized continuously in DNA replication	Leading Strand
This strand is synthesized in small, discontinuous Okazaki fragments in DNA replication	Lagging Strand
This enzyme combines Okazaki fragments	Ligase
These fragments are synthesized along the lagging strand during DNA replication	Okazaki Fragments
This enzyme unwinds DNA	Helicase
This is created when helicase unwinds DNA	Replication Fork
This enzyme synthesizes a short RNA primer as a starting point for DNA polymerase	Primase
This enzyme synthesizes new DNA strand by reading from parent DNA and adding complementary nucleotides	DNA Polymerase
DNA polymerase reads in this direction	5'-3'
This process creates an mRNA copy of the coding strand by reading the template strand of a DNA segment	Transcription
mRNA carries genetic information from the nucleus to this place	Cytoplasm
RNA polymerase reads this strand	Coding Strand
mRNA is a copy of this strand	Non-Coding (Template) Strand
The main enzyme in transcription	RNA Polymerase
Three stages of transcription	Initiation, Elongation, Termination
Stage of transcription where RNA polymerase binds to a promoter sequence	Initiation
Site where RNA polymerase binds to	Promoter
Stage of transcription where DNA is unwound and a complementary RNA sequence is built	Elongation
Stage of transcription where RNA polymerase reaches a terminator sequence and mRNA is released	Termination
Sequences that are removed from mRNA after transcription ends	Introns
Two additions to mRNA after transcription in eukaryotes	5' Cap and 3' Poly-A Tail
Process where mRNA is decoded into a sequence of amino acids to form a polypeptide	Translation
Location of translation	Ribosomes
These codons end translation	Stop Codons
Specific codon that starts translation	AUG
Trinucleotide sequence that codes for a specific amino acid	Codon
Type of RNA that carries genetic information	mRNA
Type of RNA that reads codons in mRNA	tRNA
Type of RNA that brings in amino acids that correspond with codon-anticodon pairs	tRNA
Type of RNA that makes up ribosomes	rRNA
These types of bonds hold amino acids together to form proteins	Peptide Bonds
Three main sites on ribosomes	A (Aminoacyl), P (Peptidyl), E (Exit)
Site on ribosomes where tRNA carrying new amino acids bind to	A (Aminoacyl) Site
Site on ribosomes where the tRNA that holds the growing polypeptide binds to	P (Peptidyl) Site
Site on ribosomes where tRNA molecules leave after adding their amino acid to the polypeptide chain	E (Exit) Site
Inputs of cellular respiration	Glucose, 6 Oxygen Gas
Outputs of cellular respiration	6 Carbon Dioxide, 6 Water, 30-32 ATP
First stage of cellular respiration	Glycolysis
Location of glycolysis	Cytoplasm
Outputs of glycolysis	Net 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate
Location of Krebs Cycle	Mitochondrial Matrix
Pyruvate is first converted into this before Krebs Cycle	Acetyl-CoA
Products of Krebs Cycle	2 Carbon Dioxide, 1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH2
Amount of cycles of the Krebs Cycle per glucose	2
Final stage of cellular respiration	Oxidative Phosphorylation
Stages of oxidative phosphorylation	Electron Transport Chain, Chemiosmosis
Location of oxidative phosphorylation	Inner Mitochondrial Membrane
Stage of oxidative phosphorylation where FADH2 and NADH are oxidized, with the movement of their electrons creating an electrochemical gradient	Electron Transport Chain
Final electron acceptor in the electron transport chain	Oxygen
Stage of oxidative phosphorylation where proteins flow down their concentration gradient through ATP synthase to produce ATP	Chemiosmosis
Most important enzyme in chemiosmosis	ATP Synthase
Process performed if oxygen is not present after glycolysis	Fermentation
Type of anaerobic respiration performed by yeast	Alcoholic Fermentation
Type of anaerobic respiration performed by muscle cells	Lactic Acid Fermentation
A variant form of a gene	Allele
An allele that is always expressed if it is present	Dominant Allele
An allele that is only expressed if there are two of it or if it is the only present allele	Recessive Allele
Genetic makeup of an organism when looking at alleles	Genotype
Observable characteristics expressed by an organism	Phenotype
Having two of the same allele	Homozygous
Having two different alleles for the same trait	Heterozygous
Mendel's two laws	Law of Segregation, Law of Independent Assortment
Mendel's law that states that alleles for different traits are not linked as long as they are not close together on the same chromosome	Law of Independent Assortment
Mendel's law that states that alleles for the same characteristic will separate so that each gamete only has one allele for each trait	Law of Segregation
Model that shows the possible offspring genotypes of two parents	Punnett Square
Genotype ratio of a monohybrid cross	1:2:1
Phenotype ratio of a monohybrid cross	3:1
Genotype ratio of a dihybrid cross	1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1
Phenotype ratio of a dihybrid cross	9:3:3:1
Dominance where the expressed phenotype is a mix of both held alleles	Incomplete Dominance
Dominance where both alleles are completely and independently expressed	Codominance
Taxonomic system was created by this man	Carl Linnaeus
Science of naming, defining, and classifying groups of organisms	Taxonomy
Taxonomic hierarchy from broadest to most specific	Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Order, Class, Family, Genus, species
System used for naming organisms	Binomial Nomenclature
Two parts of binomial nomenclature	Genus, species
Three domains of life	Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
Domain of organisms with peptidoglycan in their cell walls	Bacteria
Bacteria cells walls contain this sugar, as compared to archaean cell walls	Peptidoglycan
Most widespread and diverse domain of life	Bacteria
Extremophiles fall into this domain of life	Archaea
Only eukaryotic domain of life	Eukarya
Domain of life that humans are in	Eukarya
Kingdoms of Eukarya	Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia
Model that depicts evolutionary relationships	Phylogenetic Tree
Structure on phylogenetic tree with the most recent common ancestor of the clade being analyzed	Root
Structure on phylogenetic tree where a species splits	Branch Points (Nodes)
Two parts of the nervous system	Central Nervous System (CNS), Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Part of the nervous system with the brain and spinal cord	Central Nervous System (CNS)
Part of the nervous system containing all of the branching nerves in the body	Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Fundamental unit of the nervous system	Neuron
Branch-like extensions on neurons that receive signals from other neurons	Dendrites
Part of neurons that contain the nucleus and other organelles	Cell Body (Soma)
Long, slender projections on neurons that transmit signals to other neurons	Axons
Fatty insulating layer that covers the axon of some neurons	Myelin Sheath
Myelin sheaths are produced by these cells in the PNS	Schwann Cells
Myelin sheaths are produced by these cells in the CNS	Oligodendrocytes
Rapid, temporary change in electric potential across an axon	Action Potential
Resting charge states of a neuron	Negative Inside, Positive Outside
Protein that allows for the polarization of neurons	Sodium-Potassium Pump
State of a neuron where the sodium pump is open and the inside of the neuron is positive	Depolarized
State of the neuron where the sodium pump closes and the potassium pump opens, causing the inside to become negative again	Repolarized
Stage of polarization where an action potential travels in waves of depolarization and repolarization down an axon	Propagation
Gaps in myelin sheaths	Nodes of Ranvier
Process where an action potential jumps over nodes of Ranvier	Saltatory Conduction
Junctions between neurons	Synapse
Released when an action potential reaches an axon terminal	Neurotransmitter
Acetylcholine, dopamine, and serotonin are examples of these hormones	Neurotransmitters
Inputs of photosynthesis	6 Carbon Dioxide, 6 Water, Light Energy
Outputs of photosynthesis	Glucose, 6 Oxygen Gas
Organelle where photosynthesis happens	Chloroplasts
Systems of interconnected, membranous stacks in chloroplasts	Thylakoids
Name for stacks of thylakoids	Grana
Dense, fluid-filled space around thylakoids	Stroma
Location of light-dependent reactions	Thylakoid Membranes
Inputs of light-dependent reactions	Light, Water, ADP, NADP+
Outputs of light-dependent reactions	ATP, NADPH, Oxygen Gas
Areas of chloroplasts that excited electrons travel through	Photosystems
This molecule is split by photolysis to replace excited electrons in light-dependent reactions	Water
Excited electrons go through this to create a proton gradient during light-dependent reactions	Electron Transport Chain
Input and output molecule of light-dependent reactions that is reduced/formed by excited electrons	NADP+ to NADPH
Location of Calvin Cycle	Stroma
Inputs of Calvin Cycle	Carbon Dioxide, ATP, NADPH
Outputs of Calvin Cycle	G3P, ADP, NADP+
Steps of the Calvin Cycle	Carbon Fixation, Reduction, Regeneration
Enzyme used in carbon fixation	RuBisCo
RuBisCo attaches carbon dioxide to this molecule in the Calvin Cycle	RuBP
Stage of Calvin Cycle that uses RuBisCo	Carbon Fixation
Stage of Calvin Cycle that produces G3P using ATP and NADPH	Reduction
Stage of Calvin Cycle where one G3P exits and five restart the cycle	Regeneration
Process that produces four haploid gamete cells	Meiosis
General stage of meiosis that separated homologous chromosomes	Meiosis I
Specific stage of meiosis where homologous chromosomes pair up to form a bivalent	Prophase I
Specific stage of meiosis where crossing-over happens	Prophase I
Process that creates genetic diversity by having genetic information be exchanged between homologous chromosomes	Crossing-Over
Specific stage of meiosis where independent assortment happens	Metaphase I
Specific stage of meiosis that pulls homologous chromosomes apart	Anaphase I
Specific stage of meiosis that produces two haploid cells with a duplicated set of chromosomes	Telophase I
General stage of meiosis that separates sister chromatids	Meiosis II
Specific stage of meiosis that produces four genetically unique haploid gametes	Telophase II
Chambers of the heart	Left Atria, Right Atria, Left Ventricle, Right Ventricle
Upper chambers of the heart	Left Atria, Right Atria
Chambers of the heart that receive blood	Left Atria, Right Atria
Lower, more muscular chambers of the heart	Left Ventricle, Right Ventricle
Chambers of the heart that pump blood out	Left Ventricle, Right Ventricle
Two circuits of bloodflow	Pulmonary Circuit, Systemic Circuit
Circuit that carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to lungs	Pulmonary Circuit
Circuit that returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium	Pulmonary Circuit
Circuit that carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body	Systemic Circuit
Circuit that returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium	Systemic Circuit
Complete path of blood flow	Vena Cava → Right Atrium → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Artery → Lungs → Pulmonary Vein → Left Ventricle → Left Atrium → Aorta → Body
Main three types of blood vessels	Veins, Arteries, Capillaries
Blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart	Arteries
Blood vessels with thick, muscular walls to withstand pressure	Arteries
Blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart	Veins
Blood vessels with thinner walls that prevent backflow	Veins
Smallest blood vessels, being only one cell thick	Capillaries
Blood vessels that form vast networks to exchange gases, nutrients, and waste products between blood and body tissue	Capillaries
Liquid matrix component of blood	Plasma
Three main cell types in blood	Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes), White Blood Cells (Leukocytes), Platelets (Thrombrocytes)
Most numerous type of blood cell	Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
Blood cells that contain hemoglobin	Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
Red blood cells lack this organelle	Nucleus
Scientific name for red blood cells	Erythrocytes
Blood cells that defend against pathogens	White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
Scientific name for white blood cells	Leukocytes
Blood cell fragments that are essential for blood clotting	Platelets (Thrombrocytes)
Scientific name for platelets	Thrombrocytes
Type of immunity that is the first defense	Innate Immunity
Skin and mucous membranes are these kinds of barriers in the immune system	Physical Barriers
Stomach acid and saliva enzymes are these kinds of barriers in the immune system	Chemical Barriers
Phagocytosis and inflammation is this kind of defense in the immune system	Cellular Defense
This type of immunity is characterized by specificity and memory	Adaptive Immunity
Type of immunity mediated by B-cells	Humoral Immunity
B-cells differentiate into these cells to produce antibodies	Plasma Cells
Plasma cells produce these things	Antibodies
This process engulfs antigens marked for deletion	Phagocytosis
Type of immunity mediated by T-cells	Cell-Mediated Immunity
Type of immunity that targets body cells that have become infected or cancerous	Cell-Mediated Immunity (T-Cell Mediated)
These cells activate B cells and T cells	Helper T Cells
These cells recognize and kill infected cells by releasing toxins	Cytotoxin T Cells
B cells and T cells can sometimes become these types of cells after activation	Memory Cells
Sum of chemical reactions that occur within a living organism	Metabolism
Metabolic pathways that synthesize complex molecules from simpler ones	Anabolic Pathways
Anabolic pathways have these types of reactions	Endergonic
Photosynthesis and protein synthesis are these types of metabolic pathways	Anabolic
Metabolic pathways that break down complex molecules into simpler ones	Catabolic Pathways
Catabolic pathways have these types of reactions	Exergonic
Cellular respiration is an example of this type of metabolic pathway	Catabolic
Biological catalysts	Enzymes
Enzymes speed up reactions by lowering this	Activation energy
Location on enzymes where substrate binds	Active Site
Molecule that an enzyme acts on	Substrate
Model that describes how enzymes and substrates interact	Induced-Fit Model
Molecules that resemble a substrate and are able to bind to the active site of enzymes instead of the desired molecule	Competitive Inhibitors
Molecules that bind to an allosteric site on enzymes, causing the active site to change shape and lose its specificity	Noncompetitive Inhibitors
Parasites made of genetic material in a protein shell	Viruses
Proteins shell of parasites	Capsid
Name for new virus particles formed by replication	Virions
Two types of virus replication	Lytic Cycle, Lysogenic Cycle
Quickest cycle for virus replication	Lytic Cycle
Type of virus replication where the virus injects its DNA into the host cells DNA	Lysogenic Cycle
Viruses with RNA that are still able to go through the lysogenic cycle	Retroviruses
Enzyme used by retroviruses to convert their RNA into DNA	Reverse Transcriptase
Misfolded proteins found in the brain	Prions
Prions lack this	Genetic Material
Creutzfeldt-Jakob and Mad Cow Disease are caused by these things	Prions
Plant organs that absorb water and nutrients from the environment	Roots
Plant organs that transport substance between roots and leaves	Stems
Plant organs that are the primary sites of photosynthesis	Leaves
Two types of primary vascular tissue in plants	Xylem, Phloem
Vascular tissue that transports water and nutrients from the roots to the rest of the plant	Xylem
Cells that make up xylem	Tracheids, Vessel Elements
Vascular tissue made of dead cells	Xylem
Vascular tissue that transport sugar from leaves to the rest of the plant	Phloem
Cells that make up phloem	Sieve-Tube Elements
Theory that describes water motion in xylem	Cohesion-Tension Theory
Process of water evaporating out of stomata in leaves	Transpiration
Pores in leaves that water evaporates out of	Stomata
Hypothesis that describes sugar motion in phloem	Pressure-Flow Hypothesis
Process that creates pressure in phloem	Osmosis
Idealistic population growth model	Exponential Growth
Shape of exponential growth curves	J
Realistic population growth model that accounts for limiting factors	Logistic Growth
Population growth rate slows as it approaches this number	Carrying Capacity
Shape of logistic growth curve	S (Sigmoid)
Maximum population size that can be maintained by the environment	Carrying Capacity
Letter that represents carrying capacity	K
Type of population limiting factor that is usually biotic	Density-Dependent
Type of population limiting factor that is usually abiotic	Density-Independent
Ecological interaction that is negative for both species	Competition
Principle that states that two competing species cannot exist simultaneously forever, and one with eventually out-compete the other	Competitive Exclusion Principle
Ecological interaction where one species kills and eats another, which is positive for one and negative for the other	Predation
Types of symbiosis	Mutualism, Commensalism, Parasitism
Type of symbiotic relationship that is beneficial for both species	Mutualism
Type of symbiotic relationship that is beneficial for one species and neutral for the other	Commensalism
Type of symbiotic relationship that is beneficial for one species and negative for the other	Parasitism
Process of an ecosystem changing after a disturbance	Succession
Type of succession that occurs in a region with no soil	Primary Succession
First organisms to colonize a region after it is disturbed	Pioneer Species
Most common pioneer species for primary succession	Lichens, Mosses
Type of succession that takes hundreds to thousands of years	Primary Succession
Type of succession that occurs in a region after a disturbance that still leaves soil	Secondary Succession
Most common pioneer species for secondary succession	Weeds
Fastest type of succession	Secondary Succession
Biological communities that have reached a steady state after succession	Climax Communities
Linear sequence of organisms showing energy transfer	Food Chain
Group of interconnected food chains describing an entire ecosystem	Food Web
Species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance	Keystone Species
Occurs when an apex predator is removed or added to an ecosystem	Trophic Cascade
States that abundance of lower trophs is mediated by actions on higher trophs	Top-Down Control
Stages of the nitrogen cycle	Fixation, nitrification, assimilation, ammonification, denitrification
Stage of the nitrogen cycle where bacteria turn atmospheric oxygen into ammonia or ammonium	Nitrogen Fixation
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria form these mutualistic structures with legume root-nodules	Mycorrhiza
Stage of the nitrogen cycle where bacteria turn ammonia into nitrite and then nitrate for plants	Nitrification
Stage of the nitrogen cycle plants absorb nitrogen and animals get nitrogen from eating plants and animals	Assimilation
Stage of the nitrogen cycle where decomposers break down dead organic matter to return nitrogen to the soil	Ammonificiation
Stage of the nitrogen cycle where bacteria convert nitrates back into atmospheric nitrogen	Denitrification
Biochemical cycle that doesn't have an atmospheric form	Phosphorus Cycle
Three types of biodiversity	Genetic, Species, Ecosystem
Biodiversity that describes the number of genetic characteristics present in a population	Genetic Biodiversity
Biodiversity that describes the number and relative abundance of species in an ecosystem	Species Biodiversity
Biodiversity that describes the variety of habitats, communities, and ecological processes in the biosphere	Ecosystem Biodiversity
Belief that humans freely gain from the natural environment continuing to function properly	Ecosystem Services

Created by: KatieThiel

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