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CHEM FINAL EXAM
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Chapter 1 — Measurement & Calculations | |
| Significant Figures | Digits in a number that show precision, including all certain digits plus one estimated digit. |
| Accuracy | How close a measurement is to the true value. |
| Precision | |
| How close repeated measurements are to each other. | |
| Density | |
| Mass per unit volume (D = m/v). | |
| Scientific Notation | |
| A way of writing very large or small numbers using powers of 10. | |
| Unit Conversion (Dimensional Analysis) | |
| A method of converting between measurement units using conversion factors. | |
| Chapter 2 — Matter & Energy | |
| Matter | |
| Anything that has mass and takes up space. | |
| Element | |
| Compound | |
| A substance made of two or more elements chemically bonded. | |
| Mixture | |
| Two or more substances physically combined. | |
| Homogeneous Mixture | |
| A mixture with uniform composition. | |
| Heterogeneous Mixture | |
| A mixture with visibly different parts. | |
| Physical Change | |
| A change that does not alter chemical identity. | |
| Chemical Change | |
| A change that forms new substances. | |
| Law of Conservation of Mass | |
| Mass is neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions. | |
| Chapter 3 — Atoms | |
| Atom | |
| The smallest particle of an element that retains its properties. | |
| Proton | |
| Positively charged particle in the nucleus. | |
| Neutron | |
| Neutral particle in the nucleus. | |
| Electron | |
| Negatively charged particle in the electron cloud. | |
| Atomic Number | |
| Number of protons in an atom. | |
| Mass Number | |
| Protons + neutrons in an atom. | |
| Isotope | |
| Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. | |
| Chapter 4 — Nuclear Chemistry | |
| Radioactivity | |
| Spontaneous emission of particles or energy from an unstable nucleus. | |
| Alpha Particle | |
| Helium nucleus (2 protons, 2 neutrons). | |
| Beta Particle | |
| High-energy electron emitted from the nucleus. | |
| Half-Life | |
| Time required for half the nuclei in a sample to decay. | |
| Chapter 5 — Electrons & Periodic Table | |
| Electron Configuration | |
| The arrangement of electrons in an atom. | |
| Ground State | |
| Low-energy, normal electron arrangement. | |
| Excited State | |
| High-energy electron arrangement after absorbing energy. | |
| Periodic Law | |
| Properties of elements repeat periodically when arranged by atomic number. | |
| Valence Electrons | |
| Electrons in the outermost energy level. | |
| Electronegativity | |
| Atom’s ability to attract electrons. | |
| Ionization Energy | |
| Energy required to remove an electron. | |
| Chapter 6 — Naming & Formulas | |
| Ion | |
| An atom that has gained or lost electrons. | |
| Cation | |
| Positively charged ion. | |
| Anion | |
| Negatively charged ion. | |
| Ionic Bond | |
| Bond formed by electron transfer between a metal and nonmetal. | |
| Covalent Bond | |
| Bond formed when nonmetals share electrons. | |
| Polyatomic Ion | |
| A charged group of covalently bonded atoms. | |
| Chemical Formula | |
| Shows types and numbers of atoms in a compound. | |
| Chapter 7 — Covalent Bonding & Shapes | |
| VSEPR Theory | |
| Predicts molecular shapes based on electron pair repulsions. | |
| Polar Bond | |
| Unequal sharing of electrons. | |
| Nonpolar Bond | |
| Equal sharing of electrons. | |
| Molecule | |
| Two or more atoms bonded covalently. | |
| Chapter 8 — Chemical Reactions | |
| Reactant | |
| Substance present before a reaction. | |
| Product | |
| Substance formed in a reaction. | |
| Balanced Equation | |
| Has equal numbers of each atom on both sides. | |
| Synthesis Reaction | |
| Two substances combine into one. | |
| Decomposition Reaction | |
| One substance breaks into two or more. | |
| Combustion Reaction | |
| Reaction with oxygen producing CO₂ and H₂O. | |
| Single Replacement | |
| One element replaces another in a compound. | |
| Double Replacement | |
| Two compounds exchange ions. | |
| Chapter 9 — Stoichiometry | |
| Mole (mol) | |
| 6.022×10²³ particles. | |
| Molar Mass | |
| Mass of 1 mole of a substance. | |
| Limiting Reactant | |
| Substance that runs out first in a reaction. | |
| Theoretical Yield | |
| Maximum possible product. | |
| Actual Yield | |
| Amount produced in reality. | |
| Percent Yield | |
| (actual ÷ theoretical) × 100. | |
| Chapter 10 — States of Matter & Gas Laws | |
| Kinetic Molecular Theory | |
| Explains particle movement in matter. | |
| Pressure | |
| Force per unit area. | |
| Boyle’s Law | |
| Pressure ↑, Volume ↓ (inverse relationship). | |
| Charles’s Law | |
| Temperature ↑, Volume ↑. | |
| Avogadro’s Law | |
| Equal volumes of gas = equal moles. | |
| Chapter 11 — Solutions | |
| Solution | |
| Homogeneous mixture. | |
| Solute | |
| Substance being dissolved. | |
| Solvent | |
| Substance doing the dissolving. | |
| Electrolyte | |
| Produces ions in solution and conducts electricity. | |
| Solubility | |
| How much solute dissolves at a given temperature. | |
| Concentration (Molarity) | |
| mol ÷ L. | |
| Dilution | |
| Lowering concentration by adding solve |
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