Nerve signaling: action potential caused by rapid Na⁺ influx then K⁺ efflux; threshold must be reached to fire.

Refractory periods prevent overlap; myelin enables saltatory conduction for speed; ATP pumps restore ion gradients.

Synapses convert electrical → chemical → electrical; Ca²⁺ triggers neurotransmitter release into cleft.

EPSPs depolarize, IPSPs hyperpolarize; summation decides if neuron fires; reuptake/enzymes clear transmitter.

CNS integrates sensation, memory, emotion, motor planning, autonomic regulation, and learning.

Brainstem controls breathing/HR; cerebellum coordinates balance; cortex drives conscious thought & perception.

PNS detects external/internal conditions via receptors; sends sensory info in, motor commands out.

Somatic division controls skeletal muscle; rapid reflex arcs bypass brain to prevent injury.

ANS: involuntary organ control; sympathetic mobilizes energy, parasympathetic restores.

Sympathetic ↑HR/BP/glucose; Parasympathetic ↑GI motility/urine output; balance maintains homeostasis.

Sensory receptors transduce light, sound, pressure, temperature, and chemicals into graded potentials.

CNS interprets patterns, frequency, and location of firing; adaptation reduces constant stimuli.

Hormones travel via blood; control growth, metabolism, electrolytes, reproduction, stress.

Negative feedback stabilizes; receptors dictate response; steroid = intracellular, peptide = membrane.

Lymphatics return excess fluid, absorb fats, transport immune cells, and prevent edema.

Lymph nodes filter pathogens; valves maintain flow; closely linked with cardiovascular system.

Innate = fast (barriers, inflammation, phagocytes). Adaptive = targeted (T/B cells + memory).

Cytokines coordinate attack; antibodies neutralize pathogens; memory response speeds future defense.

Diaphragm contraction ↓thoracic pressure → air in; relaxation reverses flow.

CO₂, not O₂, drives breathing; medulla sets rhythm; intercostals assist depth & stabilization.

Chemoreceptors sense CO₂/H⁺; ↑CO₂ = ↑ventilation; ↓CO₂ = ↓rate.

Hyperventilation ↓CO₂ and raises pH; hypoventilation ↑CO₂ and lowers pH.

Gas exchange via diffusion across thin alveolar-capillary membrane; large surface area improves rate.

O₂ binds hemoglobin; CO₂ carried as bicarbonate; mismatch of ventilation/perfusion ↓exchange efficiency.

Digestion: mechanical + chemical breakdown of carbs, fats, proteins into absorbable units.

Enzymes, bile, acid, motility regulate timing; enteric nervous system controls peristalsis independently.

Small intestine absorbs nutrients; villi + microvilli massively increase surface area.

Carbs/proteins enter blood; fats enter lymph via chylomicrons; water follows osmotic gradients.

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Physiology week 7-13


Nerve signaling: action potential caused by rapid Na⁺ influx then K⁺ efflux; threshold must be reached to fire.	Refractory periods prevent overlap; myelin enables saltatory conduction for speed; ATP pumps restore ion gradients.
Synapses convert electrical → chemical → electrical; Ca²⁺ triggers neurotransmitter release into cleft.	EPSPs depolarize, IPSPs hyperpolarize; summation decides if neuron fires; reuptake/enzymes clear transmitter.
CNS integrates sensation, memory, emotion, motor planning, autonomic regulation, and learning.	Brainstem controls breathing/HR; cerebellum coordinates balance; cortex drives conscious thought & perception.
PNS detects external/internal conditions via receptors; sends sensory info in, motor commands out.	Somatic division controls skeletal muscle; rapid reflex arcs bypass brain to prevent injury.
ANS: involuntary organ control; sympathetic mobilizes energy, parasympathetic restores.	Sympathetic ↑HR/BP/glucose; Parasympathetic ↑GI motility/urine output; balance maintains homeostasis.
Sensory receptors transduce light, sound, pressure, temperature, and chemicals into graded potentials.	CNS interprets patterns, frequency, and location of firing; adaptation reduces constant stimuli.
Hormones travel via blood; control growth, metabolism, electrolytes, reproduction, stress.	Negative feedback stabilizes; receptors dictate response; steroid = intracellular, peptide = membrane.
Lymphatics return excess fluid, absorb fats, transport immune cells, and prevent edema.	Lymph nodes filter pathogens; valves maintain flow; closely linked with cardiovascular system.
Innate = fast (barriers, inflammation, phagocytes). Adaptive = targeted (T/B cells + memory).	Cytokines coordinate attack; antibodies neutralize pathogens; memory response speeds future defense.
Diaphragm contraction ↓thoracic pressure → air in; relaxation reverses flow.	CO₂, not O₂, drives breathing; medulla sets rhythm; intercostals assist depth & stabilization.
Chemoreceptors sense CO₂/H⁺; ↑CO₂ = ↑ventilation; ↓CO₂ = ↓rate.	Hyperventilation ↓CO₂ and raises pH; hypoventilation ↑CO₂ and lowers pH.
Gas exchange via diffusion across thin alveolar-capillary membrane; large surface area improves rate.	O₂ binds hemoglobin; CO₂ carried as bicarbonate; mismatch of ventilation/perfusion ↓exchange efficiency.
Digestion: mechanical + chemical breakdown of carbs, fats, proteins into absorbable units.	Enzymes, bile, acid, motility regulate timing; enteric nervous system controls peristalsis independently.
Small intestine absorbs nutrients; villi + microvilli massively increase surface area.	Carbs/proteins enter blood; fats enter lymph via chylomicrons; water follows osmotic gradients.

Created by: user-1991598

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