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Final Exam
General Chemistry 1 Final Exam Fall Semester 2025
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| What are the three subatomic particles? | Protons, neutrons, and electrons |
| Where are protons and neutrons located? | In the nucleus |
| Where are electrons located? | Outside the nucleus in the electron cloud |
| What is the charge of a proton? | +1 |
| What is the charge of a neutron? | 0 |
| What is the charge of an electron? | -1 |
| Which subatomic particle determines the element? | The number of protons |
| Which particles have nearly the same mass? | Protons and neutrons |
| Which particle has the smallest mass? | The electron |
| Define atomic number (Z) | Number of protons |
| Define mass number (A) | Number of protons + number of neutrons |
| How do you calculate number of neutrons? | Neutrons = A – Z |
| Define isotope | Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons |
| Do isotopes have the same chemical behavior? | Yes |
| Why do isotopes differ in mass? | They have different numbers of neutrons |
| Example: Chlorine with 18 neutrons — what is Z? | 17 |
| What is the symbol for chlorine with 18 neutrons? | ³⁵Cl or Cl-35 |
| What is average atomic mass? | Weighted average of an element’s isotopes |
| Unit for atomic mass? | amu |
| General formula for atomic mass? | Σ(fraction × mass of isotope) |
| Why is Cl’s atomic mass 35.45 amu? | Due to mixture of Cl-35 and Cl-37 isotopes based on natural abundance |
| What is a chemical symbol? | Abbreviation representing an element |
| Which element symbols must be memorized (first 36 + extras)? | Sr, Ba, Sn, Pb, I, Xe, Rn |
| Capitalization rule for symbols? | First letter uppercase, second letter lowercase |
| What is an atomic element? | Exists in nature as single atoms (e.g., He, Na) |
| What is a molecular element? | Exists as molecules (diatomic or polyatomic) |
| List the 7 diatomic elements. | H₂, N₂, O₂, F₂, Cl₂, Br₂, I₂ |
| List common polyatomic elements | P₄, S₈, Se₈ |
| Define compound | Two or more elements chemically bonded in fixed proportions |
| What is a covalent bond? | Transfer of electrons between metal and nonmetal |
| Basic unit of molecular compound? | Sharing of electrons between two nonmetals |
| Basic unit of molecular compound? | Molecule |
| Basic unit of ionic compound? | Formula unit |
| Define molecular formula | Actual number of each type of atom (e.g., H₂O₂) |
| Define empirical formula | Simplest whole-number ratio (e.g., HO) |
| Empirical formula of glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆)? | CH₂O |
| What is the periodic law? | Properties of elements are periodic functions of atomic number. |
| Rows on periodic table are called? | Periods |
| Columns on periodic table are called? | Groups or families |
| Which groups are “main group elements”? | 1A-8A |
| Which elements are transition metals? | Middle block (groups 3-12) |
| Properties of metals? | Shiny, malleable, good conductors, tend to lose electrons |
| Properties of nonmetals? | Dull, poor conductors, varied states, tend to gain electrons |
| Properties of metalloids? | Moderate conductivity, properties of both metals and nonmetals |
| Group 1A name? | Alkali metals |
| Group 2A name? | Alkaline earth metals |
| Group 7A name? | Halogens |
| Group 8A name? | Noble gases |
| How do cations form? | Atoms lose electrons (positive) |
| How do anions form? | Atoms gain electrons (negative) |
| Ammonium | NH₄⁺ |
| Nitrate | NO₃⁻ |
| Nitrite | NO₂⁻ |
| Sulfate | SO₄²⁻ |
| Sulfite | SO₃²⁻ |
| Carbonate | CO₃²⁻ |
| Bicarbonate | HCO₃⁻ |
| Phosphate | PO₄³⁻ |
| Hydroxide | OH⁻ |
| Chlorate | ClO₃⁻ |
| Perchlorate | ClO₄⁻ |
| Permanganate | MnO₄⁻ |
| Dichromate | Cr₂O₇²⁻ |
| How to name a binary ionic compound (fixed-charge metal)? | Metal name + nonmetal with “-ide.” |
| Example: CaS naming | Calcium sulfide |
| How to name transition-metal compounds? | Metal name (roman numeral) + nonmetal with “-ide.” |
| Example: FeCl₃ naming | Iron(III) chloride |
| How to name compounds with polyatomic ions? | Metal name + polyatomic ion name. |
| Example: NH₄NO₃ naming | Ammonium nitrate |
| What is formula mass? | The sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a chemical formula (amu). |
| What is atomic mass? | The average mass of an element’s atoms (amu) |
| How do you calculate formula mass? | Sum of (number of atoms × atomic mass) for each element |
| Example: What elements are in CHCl₃? | C, H, and 3 Cl atoms |
| What is a mole? | 6.022 × 10²³ particles (Avogadro’s number) |
| What is Avogadro’s number? | 6.022 × 10²³ particles per mole |
| How many particles are in 2 moles? | 2 × 6.022 × 10²³ |
| Relationship between formula mass and molar mass? | Same number, different units (amu vs g/mol) |
| Define molar mass. | Mass of 1 mole of a substance (g/mol) |
| How are moles and mass related? | moles = mass ÷ molar mass |
| How are moles and particles related? | particles = moles × Avogadro’s number |
| How are mass and particles connected? | Convert mass → moles → particles |
| What does a subscript in a formula tell you? | Number of atoms of each element. |
| 1 mol of PBr₃ contains how many mol of Br? | 3 mol Br |
| What is percent composition? | Percent by mass of each element in a compound. |
| Percent composition formula? | (mass of element ÷ total mass of compound) × 100% |
| What is an empirical formula? | The simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound |
| Steps to determine an empirical formula? | Convert masses to moles Write pseudoformula Divide by smallest mole value Multiply to clear fractions |
| What is a molecular formula? | The actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule |
| What is a solution? | Homogeneous mixture of solute + solvent |
| What is a solvent? | Major component of a solution |
| What is a solute? | Minor component dissolved in a solvent |
| What is an aqueous solution? | Water is the solvent |
| Define molarity (M) | Moles of solute per liter of solution (mol/L) |
| Molarity formula? | M = mol solute ÷ L solution |
| What is dilution? | Decreasing concentration by adding solvent |
| What stays constant during dilution? | Moles of solute |
| Dilution equation? | M₁V₁ = M₂V₂ |
| What is a chemical reaction? | A process in which substances convert into different substances. |
| What does a complete chemical equation include? | Reactants, products, arrow, states, coefficients |
| Steps to balance equations? | To obey the Law of Conservation of Mass |
| Which substance do you balance last? | The simplest substance (often O₂) |
| Example balanced butane combustion? | 2 C₄H₁₀ + 13 O₂ → 8 CO₂ + 10 H₂O |
| What stays the same on both sides of a balanced equation? | Number of each type of atom |
| When balancing polyatomic ions, what shortcut can you use? | Treat polyatomic ions as units if unchanged |
| What is a combustion reaction? | A reaction with O₂ producing heat/light |
| What is a precipitation reaction? | Reaction forming an insoluble solid (precipitate) |
| What is an acid-base reaction? | Acid + base → water + ionic salt |
| What is a redox reaction? | A reaction involving electron transfer. |
| What is a molecular equation? | Shows complete formulas of reactants/products |
| What is a complete ionic equation? | Shows all aqueous ions separately |
| What is a net ionic equation? | Only species that participate in the reaction |
| What are spectator ions? | Ions unchanged on both sides of the reaction |
| Example net ionic for AgNO₃ + NaCl? | Ag⁺ + Cl⁻ → AgCl(s) |
| How to predict precipitation? | Swap ions → determine solubility → solid forms if insoluble |
| What does a precipitate indicate? | Formation of an insoluble ionic compound |
| If both possible products are soluble, what happens? | No reaction |
| Arrhenius acid definition? | Produces H⁺ in water |
| Arrhenius base definition? | Produces OH⁻ in water. |
| Strong acids list? | HCl, HBr, HI, HNO₃, H₂SO₄, HClO₄ |
| Strong bases list? | Group 1 hydroxides + Ca(OH)₂, Sr(OH)₂, Ba(OH)₂ |
| Strong acid behavior? | Completely ionizes |
| Weak acid behavior? | Partially ionizes |
| Strong base behavior? | Fully dissociates into OH⁻. |
| What is oxidation? | Loss of electrons (OIL) |
| What is reduction? | Gain of electrons (RIG) |
| Oxidizing agent definition? | Species that gets reduced; causes oxidation |
| Reducing agent definition? | Species that gets oxidized; causes reduction |
| What is theoretical yield? | Maximum product formed from limiting reactant. |
| Percent yield formula? | (Actual ÷ Theoretical) × 100% |
| Definition of limiting reactant? | Reactant that makes the least amount of product |
| Definition of excess reactant? | Reactant remaining after reaction is done |
| What is gravimetric analysis? | Determining amount of substance via mass of product |
| What is equivalence point? | Point where moles acid = moles base |
| Titrant definition? | Solution with known concentration |
| Analyte definition? | Solution with unknown concentration |
| What are the key properties of gases? | Low density, highly compressible, large amounts of empty space, and particles move freely |
| How do gas particles move? | In straight lines until they collide with the container or each other |
| What factors increase pressure? | Increased concentration, temperature, or decreased volume |
| What does a barometer measure? | Atmospheric pressure using the height of a liquid column |
| Why is mercury used in barometers instead of water? | Mercury is much denser, so the height needed is shorter |
| What does Charles’ Law state? | Volume is directly proportional to temperature (V ∝ T) |
| How does molar mass affect gas density? | Higher molar mass = higher density |
| What is partial pressure? | Pressure contributed by one gas in a mixture |
| What happens to partial pressure if mole fraction increases? | Partial pressure increases |
| What happens to total pressure if volume decreases (constant T, n)? | Total pressure increases |
| How do gases behave in a mixture? | Each gas behaves independently as if the others are not presentG |
| What is energy? | The capacity to do work or transfer heat |
| What is kinetic energy? | Energy of motion |
| What is potential energy? | Energy due to position or composition |
| What is thermal energy? | Energy associated with temperature |
| What is the system? | The part of the universe being studied |
| What are the surroundings? | Everything outside the system |
| Open system vs closed system? | Open exchanges matter and energy; closed exchanges energy only |
| What does the First Law state? | Energy is conserved |
| What does q represent? | Heat |
| What does w represent? | Work |
| Sign of q for endothermic? | Positive (q > 0) |
| Sign of q for exothermic? | Negative (q < 0) |
| Pressure-volume work formula? | w = –PΔV |
| What is enthalpy? | Heat content at constant pressure |
| Exothermic vs endothermic? | Exothermic releases heat; endothermic absorbs heat |
| State function definition? | Depends only on initial and final states, not on path |
| Heat capacity vs specific heat? | Heat capacity applies to entire object; specific heat per gram |
| What is specific heat (c)? | Heat required to raise 1 g of a substance by 1°C. |
| ΔH_rxn formula? | ΣnΔH_f(products) – ΣnΔH_f(reactants) |
| Hess’s Law? | Multiple steps can be added to obtain overall ΔH |
| Relationship between wavelength and frequency? | Inversely proportional |
| Who proposed the quantized energy levels of electrons? | Bohr |
| What are quantum numbers used for? | Used to determine how electrons are arranged |
| What do quantum numbers determine? | Size, shape, and orientation in space of an orbital |
| What are the four types of quantum numbers? What variable is used to represent them? | Principal, n Angular momentum, l Magnetic, ml Spin, ms |
| What does the principal quantum number (n) determine and describe? | Determines size and energy Describes distance of the orbital from the nucleus |
| What does the angular momentum determine? What can the l values be? | Determines the shape l can be values from 0 to (n-1), values are represented by a particular level |
| If the value of l is 0, what (letter) orbital is it and what is the shape? | s spherical |
| If the value of l is 1, what (letter) orbital is it and what is the shape? | p two balloon tied at the knots |
| If the value of l is 2, what (letter) orbital is it and what is the shape? | d four balloons tied at the knots |
| If the value of l is 3, what (letter) orbital is it and what is the shape? | f eight balloon tied at knots |
| If the value of n is 1, what is the value of l and what sub shells are included? | 0 s |
| If the value of n is 2, what is the value of l and what sub shells are included? | 0, 1 s, p |
| If the value of n is 3, what is the value of l and what sub shells are included? | 0, 1, 2 s, p, d |
| If the value of n is 4, what is the value of l and what sub shells are included? | 0, 1, 2, 3 s, p, d, f |
| What does the magnetic (ml) value indicate? What are the possible integers? | Indicates the orientation in space of the orbital within a subshell (x-axis, y-axis, z-axis) Possible integer values from -l to +l (including 0) |
| If the sub shell is s, what is the l value and the ml value? | 0 0 |
| If the sub shell is p, what is the l value and the ml value? | 1 -1, 0, 1 |
| If the sub shell is d, what is the l value and the ml value? | 2 -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 |
| If the sub shell is f, what is the l value and the ml value? | 3 -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 |
| What does the spin (ms) indicate, and what are the possible answers? | Indicates the orientation of the spin of the electron Two possibilities: ms= +½ (spin up), ms= -½ (spin down) |
| What is the Pauli Exclusion Principle? | No two electrons in any atoms may have the same set of four quantum numbers No orbital can have more than two electrons, and they must have opposite spins |
| What is electron configuration? | The arrangement of electrons in the orbital |
| Orbitals with the same, have the same ___ value in the same ___ level | n; principal |
| Orbitals with the same values of ___ and ___ are said to be in the same ____ | n and l; sub shell or sub level |
| If the energy level is 4, how many sub levels are there and how many types of sub levels? | 4 s, p, d, f |
| If the energy level is 3, how many sub levels are there and how many types of sub levels? | 3 s, p, d |
| If the energy level is 2, how many sub levels are there and how many types of sub levels? | 2 s. p |
| If the energy level is 1, how many sub levels are there and how many types of sub levels? | 1 s |
| What are the key concepts related to the relative energy of orbitals? | Orbitals in different sub shells have a different energies Orbitals in the same sub shell are degenerate and have the same energy level The lower l value with the same n value means the lower the energy of the corresponding orbitals |
| What are the three principals of filling the orbitals with electrons? | Aufbau principle Pauli exclusion principle Hund's rule |
| Aufbau principle | Electron configurations of the elements is determined by “building” them in order of atomic numbers |
| Pauli exclusion principle | No two electrons in any atom may have the same set of four quantum numbers Each orbital can have a maximum of two electrons, with opposite spins |
| Hund's rule | When filling orbitals that have the same energy, electrons fill singly first then with parallel spins Once the orbitals of equal energy are half full, the electrons start to pair |
| What is short-hand electron configuration? | an abbreviation of the electron configuration that replaces the core electrons with the noble gas symbol in a square bracket |
| Where are the transition elements located? | The d block |
| In transition elements the outermost principal energy is____ | the row number minus one |
| What are the two exceptions to the electron configuration? | Cr and Cu |
| Definition of paramagnetic | Has at least one unpaired electron |
| Definition of diamagnetic | All electrons are paired |
| ____ is attracted to a magnetic field, ___ is repelled by a magnetic field | paramagnetic, diamagnetic |
| What are valence electrons? | the electrons occupying the outermost shell orbital(s), highest value of n |
| Why are valence electrons important? | They are key to chemical properties They are important to bonding |
| Where are the valence electrons in main group elements? | Valence electrons are in the highest s-orbital and p-orbital |
| Where are the valence electrons in transition metals? | valence electrons are two s-electrons plus those in highest incomplete d-orbital |
| What are core electrons? | electrons in complete principle energy levels and those in complete d and f sub levels |
| What is a cation? | positively charged ion that forms when one or more electrons are removed from an atom |
| What is an anion? | negatively charged ion that forms when one or more electrons are added to a parent atom |
| How to obtain the electron configuration of a cation? | Write electron configuration of the neutral atom Subtract the number of electrons indicated by the charge Note: for transition metals the ns electrons are lost first then the electrons in the d orbital |
| How to obtain the electron configuration of an anion? | Write electron configuration of the neutral atom Add the number of electrons indicated by the charge |
| What is Coulomb's law? | Describes the attractions and repulsions between charged particles |
| Following Coulomb's law, how to like charges react with each other, what is the potential energy, and what happens to r as the potential energy decreases? | Like charges repel each other Potential energy is positive Potential energy decreases as r increases |
| Following Coulomb's law, how to opposite charges react with each other, what is the potential energy, and what happens to r as the potential energy decreases? | Opposite charges attract each other Potential energy is negative Potential energy decreases as r decreases |
| What is shielding? | When the electrons closer to the nucleus shield other electrons from experiencing the full positive charge of the nucleus and reduce the attraction to the nucleus when n>= 3 |
| Components and what happens to electrons in an ionic bond | Metal and nonmetal Transferring of electrons |
| Components and what happens to electrons in an covalent bond | Two nonmetals Sharing of electrons |
| Properties of an ionic compound | Strong bonds Have a crystalline structure and be rigid/brittle Have high melting and boiling points Most dissolve readily in water they when dissolve/melt are excellent conductors of electricity and heat Solids are poor conductors of electricity |
| Properties of an covalent compound | Generally have much lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds Many are liquids or gases at room temperature and insoluble in water In their solid states are typically much softer than ionic solids Poor conductors of electricity in any state |
| What are ionic bonds formed by? | formed by electrostatic forces between cations and anion |
| What are covalent bonds formed by? | formed between two nonmetals when they share valence electrons |
| What is the potential energy of ionic bonds? What is the ionization energy? What is the electron affinity | Metals have relatively low ionization energies, nonmetals have relatively high electron affinities Cations and anions attract each other resulting in lower overall potential energy |
| What is the potential energy of covalent bonds? What is the ionization energy? What is the electron affinity | Nonmetal atoms have high ionization energies and electron affinity the two nonmetals share valence electrons that interact with both nuclei lowering potential energy |
| What is electronegativity? | tendency of an atom to attract bonding electrons to itself in a chemical bond |
| What is the trend of electronegativity? When does it increase | Increases across period to the right and decreases down a column |
| What is a polar covalent bond? | intermediate between a pure covalent bond and an ionic bond that has a positive and negative pole |
| How does a polar covalent bond result in? | Results in unequal sharing of electrons that results in larger electron density in one electron and a smaller electron density than the other |
| If a bond is pure covalent, the bonding electrons are ____, and the electronegativity difference value is ___. | Equally sharing <= 0.4 |
| If a bond is polar covalent, the bonding electrons are ____, and the electronegativity difference value is ___. | Unequally sharing 0.5- 1.8 |
| If a bond is ionic, the bonding electrons are ____, and the electronegativity difference value is ___. | Transferring >= 1.9 |
| What is a lewis structure? | drawing that represents chemical bonds between atoms as shared or transferred electrons |
| What are the steps of drawing a lewis structure? | Write the atomic symbol to represent the nucleus and inner electrons Draw a dot for each valence electron around an atom Put one on each of the four sides, pair them last Maximum of two dots per side |
| What is the octet rule? | tendency of main group atoms to form enough bonds to obtain eight valence electrons in outermost shell to achieve a noble gas configuration |
| What are the exceptions to the octet rule? | Incomplete octet Expanded octet Odd-electron species |
| What is an incomplete octet? | molecules or ions with fewer than eight electrons around an atom |
| What is an Expanded octet? When does it commonly happen? | molecules or ions with more than eight electrons around an atom Common for third or higher period due to accessible d orbitals Never occur when n is less than 3, have to be at least 3 or greater |
| What is an odd-electron species? Are the electrons stable/unstable? Are the electrons reactive/nonreactive? | molecules or ions with an odd number of electrons (called free radicals) They are unstable They are reactive |
| What is a resonance structure? | when two or more valid Lewis structures can be drawn for the same compound |
| What is a resonance hybrid? | average for the resonance forms shown by Lewis structures |
| Do resonance structures exist? Do resonance hybrids exist? | Resonance structures don’t exist, they are simply a way to describe the actual structure, resonance hybrid are the only actual structure that exists |
| What is the bond order of resonance structures? | ratio of the number of chemical bonds around the central atom to the number bond groups around the central atoms |
| What is the bond order equation? | Bond order= number of chemical bonds around the central atoms/ number of bond groups around the central atom |
| What is the delocalization of electrons? | when electrons are not confined to a single bond or atom but are spread out over multiple atoms or bonds |
| What is formal charge? | an electron bookkeeping system that allows us to discriminate between alternative Lewis structures |
| What is the formal charge equation? | Formal charge= # of valence e- - # of nonbonding e- - ½ # bonding e- |
| What are the rules of formal charge? | neutral molecule must add to zero sum of formal charges of all atoms in an ion must equal the ion The closer to zero the better when formal charge cannot be avoided, negative formal charge should be reside on the most electronegative atoms |
| What should you do to achieve the best formal charge if there is a negatively charged bonding atom and a positively charged bonding atom? | If two bonding atoms have opposite formal charges, move electrons from the negatively charged bonding atom to the positively charged bonding atoms to form multiple bonds and neutralize the formal charges |
| What is VB theory? | Bonds form when atomic orbitals overlap |
| What determines molecular shape in VB theory? | Geometry of overlapping orbitals |
| When does a bond form? | When system energy decreases upon overlap |
| What is a sigma (σ) bond? | End-to-end orbital overlap along internuclear axis |
| What is a pi (π) bond? | Side-by-side overlap of unhybridized p orbitals |
| Which is stronger, σ or π? | Sigma |
| Single vs double vs triple bond composition? | Single = 1σ; double = 1σ + 1π; triple = 1σ + 2π. |
| Can σ bonds rotate? | Yes |
| Can π bonds rotate? | No; rotation breaks the overlap |
| What is hybridization? | Mixing of atomic orbitals to form equivalent hybrid orbitals |
| Which bonds are formed by hybrid orbitals? | Sigma bonds |
| Which bonds come from unhybridized p orbitals? | Pi bonds. |
| sp hybridization? | 2 electron groups; linear |
| sp² hybridization? | 3 electron groups; trigonal planar. |
| sp³ hybridization? | 4 electron groups; tetrahedral |
| sp³d hybridization? | 5 electron groups; trigonal bipyramidal |
| sp³d² hybridization? | 6 electron groups; octahedral |
| What is an MO? | Orbital formed from combination of atomic orbitals |
| Bonding MO results from? | Constructive interference |
| Antibonding MO results from? | Destructive interference |
| Bond order formula? | (Bonding e⁻ – antibonding e⁻) ÷ 2 |
| Bond order significance? | Higher bond order = stronger bond. |
| Paramagnetic definition? | Contains unpaired electrons |
| Diamagnetic definition? | All electrons are paired |
| linear | 2 electron domains 2 bonding domains 0 lone pairs 180 degree angles |
| trigonal planar | 3 electron domains 3 bonding domains 0 lone pairs 120 degree angle |
| trigonal planar: bent | 3 electron domains 2 bonding domains 1 lone pair less than 120 degree angles |
| tetrahedral | 4 electron domains 4 bonding domains 0 lone pairs 109.5 degree angles |
| tetrahedral: trigonal pyramidal | 4 electron domains 3 bonding domans 1 lone pair less than 109.5 degree angles |
| tetrahedral: bent | 4 electron domains 2 bonding domains 2 lone pairs less than 109.5 degree angles = smaller than trigonal pyramidal |
| trigonal bipyramidal | 5 electron domains 5 bonding domains 0 lone pairs 90 and 120 degree angles |
| trigonal bipyramidal: seesaw | 5 electron domains 4 bonding domains 1 lone pair 90 and 120 degree angles |
| trigonal bipyramidal: t-shaped | 5 electron domains 3 bonding domains 2 lone pairs 90 degree angles |
| trigonal bipyramidal: linear | 5 electron domains 2 bonding domains 3 lone pairs 180 degree angle |
| octahedral | 6 electron domains 6 bonding domains 0 lone pairs 90 degree angles |
| octahedral: square pyramidal | 6 electron domains 5 bonding domains 1 lone pair 90 degree angles |
| octahedral: square planar | 6 electron domains 4 bonding domains 2 lone pairs 90 degree angles |
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