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bio unit 5
test review
| transformation | the process where a cell takes up foreign genetic material from its environment and incorporates it into its own genome |
| fredrick Griffith | 1928 experiment proving dna is genetic material |
| oswald avery | 1940s demonstrated that DNA is a substance that causes bacterial transformation |
| hershey and chase | 1951-1952 discovered bacteriophage DNA was injected in bacterial cells, directed viral replication |
| dna | the molecule in cells that carries genetic instructions for the functioning of organisms |
| rna | synthesizes proteins and plays a large role in gene expression |
| nucleic acid | macromolecule that stores and transmits genetic information. the "blueprint" for all living organisms |
| nucleotide | building block of nucleic acids like dna and ran, composed of a nitrogenous base, sugar, and one or more phosphate groups |
| chargoff's rule | thymine is equal to adenine and guanine is equal to cytosine |
| rosalind franklin | discovered the structure of dna, made evidence of the double helix. |
| watson and crick | interpreted by the photo from franklin that dna is a double helix |
| double helix | twisted ladder structure of dna molecule |
| anti-parallel | the two strands in double helix (5') and (3') align with each other |
| base pairing | hydrogen bond between nitrogenous bases in dna and rna |
| semi conservative | process where each dna molecule consists of one original strand and one synthesized strand |
| dna replication | the process where a cell makes an identical copy of dna before dividing |
| dna polymerase | enzyme that synthesizes dna by adding deoxyribonucleotides to a growing dna strand |
| helicase | enzyme that unwinds and separates the 2 strands of a double helix by breaking hydrogen bonds |
| ligase | enzyme that joins two molecules together by forming a chemical bond |
| complementary strand | two structures of molecules fit together (a to t and c to g) |
| adenine | nitrogenous base in both dna and rna |
| thymine | nitrogenous base in only dna |
| guanine | nitrogenous base in both dna and rna |
| cytosine | nitrogenous base in both dna and rna |
| uracil | nitrogenous base in only rna |
| mRna | molecule that carries genetic information from dna to ribosomes to direct synthesis of proteins |
| tRna | adapter molecule that plays a big role in protein synthesis by matching codons on messanger mRNA with the corresponding amino acids protein synthesis |
| rRna | rna component of a ribosome, also responsible for protein synthesis |
| transcription | the process of creating an RNA copy from DNA by the corresponding letters |
| translation | the process where a cell synthesizes a protein based on genetic information in RNA |
| promotor | region of dna of a gene where relevant proteins bind to initiate transcription of that gene |
| terminator | signals the end of a gene during transcription |
| rna polymerase | enzyme that synthesizes rna from a dna template, process of transcription |
| intron | noncoding sequence of dna within a gene transcribed into pre-mRNA which is then removed before the mRNA is translated into a protein |
| exon | the coding regions of a gene that are retained in the final messenger RNA and translated into proteins |
| gene expression | the process where information from a gene is used to create a functional product, typically a protein |
| protein synthesis | the process by which cell creates proteins |
| polypeptide | long chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, building blocks for proteins |
| genetic code | set of rules used by living cells to translate information in DNA and RNA into proteins |
| codon | 3 nucleotides in DNA or RNA molecule that specifies a particular amino acid or signal to stop protein synthesis |
| anti codon | 3 nucleotides on tRNA molecules that binds to a three-nucleotide codon on a mRNA molecule during protein synthesis |
| start codon | 3-nucleotide sequence in mRNA that signals the start of protein synthesis. Most common is AUG |
| stop codon | 3-nucleotide sequence in mRNA that signals the end of protein synthesis |
| mutation | permanent change in DNA in a cell occurring from errors during DNA replication or caused by environmental factors like radiation and chemicals |
| point mutation | genetic alteration where one nucleotide base in DNA is changed, either by substitution, insertion, or deletion |
| silent | change in DNA sequence that does not affect the amino acid sequence of the protein being made |
| missense | type of point mutation in DNA that does affect the amino acid being coded for a protein |
| nonsense | genetic mutation that causes premature stop codon to form during protein synthesis, leading to a nonfunctional protein |
| substitution | type of genetic mutation where one base pair in DNA is replaced by another |
| insertion | type of genetic mutation where one or more extra nucleotide bases are added into dna sequence. Causes a frameshift mutation |
| deletion | type of mutation where a segment of DNA is removed from a gene |
| frameshift | genetic mutation caused by insertion or deletion of one or more nucleotides in a dna sequence, but not in multiples of three |
| mutagen | physical, chemical, or biological agent that causes permanent changes to an organism's DNA, a process called mutation |
| carcinogen | substance, organism, pr agent capable of causing cancer |
| biotechnology | the use of living organisms, biological systems, or their components to create new products and technologies |
| restriction enzymes | protein that cuts DNA at specific recognition sequences |
| PCR | (polymerase chain reaction) is a laboratory technique used to make billions of copies of a specific DNA segment |
| gel electrophoresis | technique used to separate macromolecules like DNA, RNA, and proteins based on their size and charge |
| DNA fingerprinting | technique used to indetify unique patterns in an individual's DNA for purposes like forensic science, paternity testing, and medical diagnoses. |
| Recombinant DNA | artificial DNA created by joining genetic material from different sources, such as different species |
| Who are the scientists involved in discovering DNA and the double helix and what was their research? | watson and crick developed ideas about genetic replication in 1953. They showed that the double stranded molecule could both produce exact copies of itself and carry genetic instructions. Rosalind Franklin created the photo of the double helix which was u |
| How was the basic structure of DNA discovered? | through collaborative work of james watson, francis crick, and rosalind franklin, who used x-ray diffraction data from DNA fibers to create the double helix model. |
| What is the role of DNA? | store and transmit genetic information, providing instructions for all life |
| what is the structure of a nucleotide and how does it form the structure of DNA and RNA? | a sugar molecule (either ribose in RNA or deoxyribose in DNA) attached to a phosphate group and a nitrogen-containing base. |
| what is the process of DNA replication? How do cells copy their DNA? | the opening of the double helix and separation of the DNA strands, the priming of the template strand, and the assembly of the new DNA segment. |
| what are the base pair bonding rules to determine a complementary strand of DNA | A always with T held together by two hydrogen bonds. G always with C |
| what is the genetic code and how is it read? | the set of rules used by cells to translate the sequence of nucleotides in DNA or messenger RNA (mRNA) into proteins. It is read in groups of three bases called codons |
| difference between eukaryotic and prokaryotic chromosomes and DNA replication? | eukaryotic cells have more DNA than prokaryotic cells |
| compare and contrast DNA and RNA | DNA is a double-stranded helix with deoxyribose sugar and the base thymine, while RNA is typically a single-stranded molecule with ribose sugar and the base uracil. |
| how much of human genome is used for gene expression? | Less than 2% of the human genome is made up of genes that code for proteins. The remaining 98% includes DNA segments that help to direct the activity of those genes. |
| what is the central dogma of biology? | a theory stating that genetic information flows only in one direction, from DNA, to RNA, to protein, or RNA directly to protein. |
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kylaleighj