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Earth Science
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Oceanic-Oceanic Divergent | Specific plate boundary where magma rises and cools to create new crust, forming ridges |
| Continental-Continental Divergent | Specific plate boundary that forms rifts |
| Oceanic-Continental Convergent | Specific plate boundary where one subducts under the other to create volcanic mountain ranges |
| Oceanic-Oceanic Convergent | Specific plate boundary where one subducts under the other to create a deep sea-trench and volcanic island arcs |
| Continental-Continental Convergent | Specific plate boundary where one folds under the other, creating large mountain ranges |
| Transform | Plate boundary that does not create or destroy land forms but causes earthquakes |
| Igneous | Type of rock that forms from solidification and cooling of magma |
| Intrusive | Type of igneous rock that cools slowly inside of the earth |
| Extrusive | Type of igneous rock that cools quickly near the earth's surface |
| Sedimentary | Type of rock that forms in strata and creates fossilized remains |
| Metamorphic | Type of rock that forms from intense heat and pressure |
| Foliated | Type of metamorphic rock with a layered or banded appearance |
| Non-foliated | Type of metamorphic rock without a layered or banded appearance |
| Divergent | Type of plate boundary that turns rock into magma and then igneous rock |
| Convergent | Type of boundary that weathers rocks to create sediments for sedimentary rock |
| Subduction Zone | Area that creates intense heat and pressure to turn rocks into metamorphic rocks |
| Naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, definite chemical composite, crystalline structure | Criteria to be a mineral |
| Luster | Describes how light reflects off a mineral's surface |
| Streak | Describes the color of powder when a mineral is scraped by unglazed porcelain |
| Hardness | Measures scratch resistance of minerals |
| Mohs Scale | Scale that defines hardness for minerals |
| Talc | Defines a 1 on Mohs Scale |
| Gypsum | Defines a 2 on Mohs Scale |
| Calcite | Defines a 3 on Mohs Scale |
| Fluorite | Defines a 4 on Mohs Scale |
| Apatite | Defines a 5 on Mohs Scale |
| Orthoclase feldspar | Defines a 6 on Mohs Scale |
| Quartz | Defines a 7 on Mohs Scale |
| Topaz | Defines a 8 on Mohs Scale |
| Corundum | Defines a 9 on Mohs Scale |
| Diamond | Defines a 10 on Mohs Scale |
| Cleavage | The tendency for a mineral to break along flat, planar surfaces |
| Fracture | The tendency for a mineral to break irregularly |
| Crystal Form | The external shape of a mineral |
| Silicates | Mineral group that makes up most of the earth's crust |
| Silicates | Mineral group with a chemical structure based on SiO4 |
| Granite | Intrusive igneous rock with large crystals |
| Basalt | Extrusive igneous rock with small crystals |
| Obsidian | Extrusive, glassy igneous rock |
| Marble | Metamorphic rock that forms from limestone |
| Slate | Metamorphic rock that forms from shale |
| Gneiss | Metamorphic rock that forms from granite |
| Troposphere | Lowest layer of the atmosphere |
| Troposphere | Layer of the atmosphere where all weather occurs |
| Stratosphere | Layer of the atmosphere with the ozone layer |
| Mesosphere | Layer of the atmosphere where meteors burn up |
| Thermosphere | Layer of the atmosphere that contains the ionosphere |
| Thermosphere | Hottest layer of the atmosphere |
| Thermosphere | Layer of the atmosphere that contains the Karman line |
| Exosphere | Outermost layer of the atmosphere |
| Exosphere | Thinnest layer of the atmosphere |
| Exosphere | Layer of the atmosphere where most satellites orbit |
| Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, exosphere | Order of earth's atmosphere from lowest to highest |
| Weather | Describes the state of the atmosphere at a specific time and place |
| Climate | Describes the average state of the atmosphere over a long period of time |
| Coriolis effect | Fictitious force created by the earth's rotation |
| Right | Direction that the Coriolis effect deflects wind in the northern hemisphere |
| Left | Direction that the Coriolis effect deflects wind in the southern hemisphere |
| Coriolis effect | Effect that causes global wind patterns and atmospheric cell splitting |
| Air mass | Large boundary of air with uniform temperature and humidity |
| Front | Boundary between two air masses |
| Cold Front | Front where cold air pushes under warmer air |
| Cold Front | Front that causes thunderstorms and sharp temperature change |
| Warm Front | Front where warm air slides over cold air |
| Warm Front | Front that causes precipitation and gradual warming |
| Surface Current | Type of current driven by wind |
| Surface Current | Type of current influenced by the Coriolis effect |
| Gyres | Large circular patterns formed in currents by the Coriolis effect |
| Clockwise | Direction gyres spin in the northern hemisphere |
| Counter-clockwise | Direction gyres spin in the southern hemisphere |
| Surface Current | Type of current that the Gulf Stream is |
| Thermohaline Circulation | Currents that form in the deep ocean |
| Thermohaline Circulation | Type of current driven by water density, which is itself influenced by temperature and salinity |
| 35 parts per thousand | Average salinity of earth's oceans |
| Hadean | Earliest earth eon |
| Archean | Eon with the first continents |
| Archean | Eon with the first prokaryotes |
| Proterozoic | Eon where the atmosphere started to become oxygenated |
| Proterozoic | Eon with the first eukaryotes and multicellular life |
| Phanerozoic | Current eon |
| Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, Phanerozoic | Order of earth eons from oldest to most recent |
| Paleozoic | First Phanerozoic era |
| Paleozoic | Era with the Cambrian explosion |
| Paleozoic | Era with the first fish, insects, and amphibians |
| Paleozoic | Era where Pangaea formed |
| Paleozoic | Era that ended with the Great Dying |
| Mesozoic | Age of reptiles |
| Mesozoic | Era with dinosaurs |
| Mesozoic | Era with the first mammals and birds |
| Mesozoic | Era where Pangaea started to break up |
| Cenozoic | Age of mammals |
| Cenozoic | Era with humans |
| Stratigraphy | The study of the order of strata and the geological time scale |
| Law of Superposition | Stratigraphic law that states that strata decrease in age as you go up |
| Principle of Original Horizontality | Stratigraphic law that states that strata are first deposited horizontally by gravity |
| Principle of Cross-Cutting Relationships | Stratigraphic law that states that if a geological feature cuts another, it is newer |
| Index Fossil | A fossil used to define and identify geological periods |
| Widespread geographically, abundant, limited to a short geological time frame | Requirements to be an index fossil |
| Evaporation | Process that turns liquid water into vapor |
| Transpiration | Process of water traveling up a plant and turning into vapor |
| Condensation | Process of water vapor forming liquid water as clouds |
| Precipitation | Process of water being released from clouds |
| Infiltration | Process where water from the ground reenters the soil |
| Runoff | Process where excess water flows over land |
| Watershed | Land area where precipitation collects and drains into a common outlet |
| Porosity | A measure of the empty space in rock |
| Permeability | A measure of the ability of materials to allow fluid flow through themselves |
| Pore connectivity | Permeability is dependent on this |
| Zone of Aeration | Region above the water table where pores are filled with air and water |
| Water Table | Boundary between the zone of aeration and zone of saturation |
| Zone of Saturation | Region below the water table where pores are completely filled with water |
| Elastic Rebound Theory | Theory that explains earthquakes |
| Elastic Rebound | Process of elastic energy exceeding rock strength, causing energy to be released and the rock to snap back |
| Focus | The point where an earthquake begins in the earth |
| Epicenter | The point on the earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake |
| Body Waves | Types of waves that travel through the earth's interior after an earthquake |
| P-waves, S-waves | Two types of body waves |
| P-waves | Longitudinal body waves |
| P-waves | Fastest seismic waves |
| P-waves | Seismic waves that can travel through all 3 states of matter |
| S-waves | Transverse body waves |
| S-waves | Slower body waves |
| S-waves | Body waves that can only travel through solids |
| S-waves | Body waves that prove the outer core is a liquid |
| Surface Waves | Most destructive seismic waves |
| Mercalli Intensity Scale | Scale that measures earthquake damage |
| Richter Scale (Moment Magnitude Scale) | Scale that measures earthquake magnitude |
| 32 times | How much more energy is released by an increase of 1 on the Richter scale |
| Low-Viscosity Magma (Mafic) | Magma that is low in silica content |
| Low-Viscosity Magma (Mafic) | Hotter magma type |
| Low-Viscosity Magma (Mafic) | Magma that allows gases to easily escape |
| Low-Viscosity Magma (Mafic) | Type of magma that causes effusive eruptions |
| High-Viscosity Magma (Felsic) | Magma that is higher in silica content |
| High-Viscosity Magma (Felsic) | Cooler magma type |
| High-Viscosity Magma (Felsic) | Magma that traps gases |
| High-Viscosity Magma (Felsic) | Type of magma that causes pyroclastic flow and ash |
| Shield | Volcanoes with low viscosity lava |
| Shield | Broad, gentle-sloped volcanoes |
| Shield | Effusive volcanoes |
| Composite (Stratovolcano) | Volcanoes that alternate between viscous and pyroclastic flow |
| Composite (Stratovolcano) | Steep, conical volcanoes |
| Composite (Stratovolcano) | Highly explosive and dangerous volcanoes |
| Cinder Cone | Simplest type of volcano |
| Cinder Cone | Volcanoes that erupt blobs of congealed lava from a single vent |
| Plutons | Large bodies of intrusive igneous rock |
| Dike | Sheet-like plutons that cut across existing rock |
| Sill | Sheet-like plutons that are injected between existing rock layers |
| Batholith | Large, irregularly shaped plutons |
| Mechanical (Physical) | Weathering that only causes state changes |
| Frost Wedging | Mechanical weathering where water freezes inside of rocks and cracks them |
| Abrasion | Mechanical weathering where rock is worn down by wind, rain, or ice |
| Exfoliation | Mechanical weathering where pressure is released after rock is uncovered by the rock above it being weathered |
| Weathering | The removal of rock that doesn't move the rock |
| Oxidation | Chemical weathering where rock and oxygen react |
| Dissolution | Chemical weathering where minerals are dissolved by water |
| Hydrolysis | Chemical reactions between water and minerals that breaks the rock down |
| Erosion | Transport of weathered sediments |
| Mass Wasting | Erosion caused by gravity resulting in the downslope of rock and soil |
| Bedrock | Soil formation begins with the weathering of this parent material |
| O (organic) | Very top of soil profile |
| O (organic), A (topsoil), B (subsoil), C (weathered parent materials) | Four soil layers |
| Continental Glaciers (Ice Sheets) | Glaciers that cover a vast land area |
| Alpine Glaciers (Valley Glaciers) | Glaciers that are confined to mountain valleys |
| U-Shaped Valley | Glacial erosion feature with wide, flat-bottomed valleys |
| Cirque | Glacial erosion feature with a bowl-shaped, amphitheater-like depression at the head of a glacial valley |
| Arete | Glacial erosion feature with a sharp, knife-like ridge between two adjacent glacial valleys |
| Horn | Glacial erosion feature with a sharp, pyramid-like peak formed when multiple cirques erode back-to-back |
| Till | Glacial deposition feature with an unsorted mixture of sediments deposited directly by melting ice |
| Moraine | Glacial deposition feature with a ridge of till deposited at the edges or ends of a glacier |
| Lateral, medial, terminal | Three types of moraine |
| Drumlin | Elongated, tear-drop shaped till of hill |
| Milankovitch Cycles | Cycles that determine ice ages |
| Eccentricity, Axial Tilt, Precession | The three Milankovitch Cycles |
| Structural Geology | Study of the distribution of rock and how they respond to stress |
| Compressional | Type of geological stress that happens at convergent boundaries, where rocks are squeezed or pushed together |
| Tensional | Type of geological stress that happens at a divergent boundary where rock is pulled apart |
| Shear | Type of geological stress that happens at transform boundaries where rock is pulled in parallel, opposite directions |
| Strain | Deformation as a result of stress |
| Brittle Deformation | Rock deformation where rock breaks or fractures |
| Brittle Deformation | Rock deformation that happens at low temperature and pressure |
| Brittle Deformation | Rock deformation near earth's surface that creates faults |
| Ductile (Plastic) Deformation | Rock deformation where rock bends or flows without breaking |
| Ductile (Plastic) Deformation | Rock deformation that happens at high temperature and pressure |
| Ductile (Plastic) Deformation | Rock deformation that happens within earth's crust that creates folds |
| Faults | Fractures in rock where there has been significant movement |
| Normal Fault | Fault caused by tensile stress |
| Normal Fault | Fault where hanging wall moves down relative to footwall |
| Reverse (Thrust) Fault | Fault caused by compressional stress |
| Reverse (Thrust) Fault | Fault where hanging wall moves up relative to footwall |
| Strike-Slip Fault | Fault caused by shear stress |
| Strike-Slip Fault | Fault where blocks move horizontally past one another |
| Geological Maps | Shows the distribution of rock types and geological features at the earth's surface |
| Strike and Dip | Symbols on geological map that indicate orientation of a rock layer |
| Strike | Symbol on geological maps that indicates the direction of the line formed by the intersection of a rock layer with a horizontal plane |
| Dip | Symbol on geological maps that indicates the angle that the rock layer is inclined from the surface |
| Crust | Outermost chemical layer of the earth |
| Mantle | Silicate-rich middle chemical layer of the earth |
| Core | Dense, iron and nickel rich, innermost chemical layer of the earth |
| Lithosphere | Outermost mechanical layer of the earth |
| Lithosphere | Crust and upper mantle are taken up by this mechanical layer |
| Lithosphere | Mechanical layer that is broken up into plates |
| Asthenosphere | Mechanical layer that takes up the upper mantle below the lithosphere |
| Mesosphere | Mechanical layer that takes up the lower mantle |
| Outer Core | Liquid mechanical layer made of nickel and iron |
| Inner Core | Solid, innermost mechanical layer of the earth |
| Geodynamo Theory | Theory that explains earth's magnetic field |
| Outer Core | Layer where the earth's magnetic field is generated |
| Convection Currents | Movement of molten magnetic materials in earth's outer core |
| Coriolis Effect | Effect that groups molten materials in the outer core into columns |
| Fluvial Processes | Processes associated with rivers and streams and the deposits and landforms created by them |
| Sediment Load | Weathered materials transported by rivers |
| Dissolved Load | Soluble materials carried in solution by water |
| Suspended Load | Fine-grained particles held up by turbulence as they are moved by water |
| Bed Load | Heavier particles that are rolled, bounced, or dragged along the bottom of a riverbed |
| Erosion | High velocity rivers do this with their sediment load |
| Deposition | Low velocity rivers do this with their sediment load |
| V-Shaped Valley | Fluvial landform caused by fast flowing rivers cutting down into the landscape in their upper course |
| Meander | Broad, looping bends created when a river reaches flatter ground |
| Outside | Meanders are fastest in this part of the river's path |
| Inside | Meanders are slowest in this part of the river's path |
| Cut Bank | Caused by erosion on the outside of meanders |
| Point Bar | Caused by deposition on the inside of meanders |
| Oxbow Lake | U-Shaped body of water formed when a wide meander is cut off |
| Delta | Fan-shaped landform created by the deposition of sediments as a river flows into slower or standing water like an ocean |
| Alluvial Fan | Fan-shaped deposit of sediment formed when a fast-flowing stream emerges from a narrow canyon, causing it to slow down and drop sediments |
| Wave Refraction | The slowing and speeding up of different sections of a wave on an irregular coastline based on shallowness and deepness |
| Headlands | Wave energy in wave refraction is focused on these parts of land that stick out, eroding them |
| Longshore Drift | Process that moves sand along a coastline |
| Backwash | Outgoing waves are called this |
| Sea Cliff | Steep coastal slope created by waves repeatedly eroding the base |
| Wave-Cut Platform | Flat, bench-like surface left behind from wave erosion at the bottom of a sea cliff |
| Sea Arch | Formed when waves erode a headland |
| Sea Stack | Rock pillars formed after sea arches collapse |
| Beach | Accumulation of sediment along a shore |
| Spit | Elongated ridge of sand that projects from the land into the mouth of an adjacent bay |
| Barrier Island | Dynamic, long, narrow, sandy island parallel to the main coast, separated from it by a lagoon |
| Groundwater | Water in pores of soil and rock in the zone of saturation |
| Aquifer | Permeable rock layer or sediment that can transmit groundwater freely |
| Aquitard | Impermeable layer of rock or sediment that prevents water movement |
| Cone of Depression | Effect of water being pumped out of a well and lowering the local water table |
| Karst Topography | Type of landscape formed by the dissolution of solid rocks, usually limestone |
| Carbonic Acid | This acid is what causes limestone to dissolve into karst features |
| Karst Features | Rainwater bonds with carbon dioxide to form carbonic acid, dissolving rock into these things |
| Caves | Large underground chambers formed by the dissolution of limestone by groundwater |
| Sinkhole (Doline) | Surface depressions formed when the roof of cave collapses or when surface material is carried down into voids of rock |
| Stalactites and Stalagmites | Deposits of calcite left by water that has seeped through the roof of a cave |
| Stalactites | Calcite deposits on the roof of caves |
| Stalagmites | Calcite deposits on the floor of caves |
| Column | Formed when a stalactite and stalagmite meet |
| Disappearing Streams | Streams that flow into a sinkhole and continue to flow through the underground cave system |
| Eolian Processes | Processes carried out by wind |
| Deflation | Lifting and removal of loose, fine-grained particles from the surface |
| Deflation | Creates blowouts and desert pavement |
| Desert Pavement | Surface layer of closely packed, interlocking pebbles stripped of finer materials by wind, which protect materials below it from further deflation |
| Abrasion | Process carried out by wind with sand particles that rub against other materials |
| Ventifacts | Rocks shaped by wind abrasion |
| Creep | Type of wind transport that rolls large sand grains along the ground |
| Saltation | Most common type of wind transport where sand grains are lifted into the air and bounce along the surface |
| Suspension | Type of wind transport where very small particles are carried higher into the atmosphere and travel large distances |
| Sand Dunes | Mounds or ridges of sand deposited by wind |
| Sand Dunes | Have barchan, transverse, and longitudinal types |
| Loess | Blankets of wind-blown silt |
| CLORPT | Abbreviation for the 5 factors of soil formation |
| Climate, Organisms, Relief, Parent Material, Time | CLORPT |
| Climate | Soil factor relating to temperature and precipitation |
| Organisms | Soil factor that provides material for humus |
| Relief (Topography) | Soil factor relating to the shape of land |
| Parent Material | Soil factor relating to the underlying geologic materials like bedrock and sediment which form the soil's mineralogy |
| Time | Soil factor relating to how long it takes for soil development |
| Soil Profile | Collection of soil horizons that make up soil |
| O Horizon | Soil horizon made of litter |
| A Horizon (Topsoil) | Soil horizon made of mineral particles and humus |
| B Horizon (Subsoil) | Soil horizon where minerals and clay deposited by leaching |
| Leaching | Process of water carrying dissolved substances down soil |
| C Horizon | Soil horizon with partially weathered parent materials that separated soil from parent material |
| R Horizon | Soil horizon with unweathered bedrock |
| Soil Texture | Proportion of sand, silt, and clay in soil |
| Loam | Soil with a perfect balance of sand, silt, and clay |
| Angle of Repose | Steepest angle that loose, unconsolidated material will remain stable |
| Creep | Slowest, almost imperceptible form of mass wasting |
| Slump | Rotational sliding of mass along a concave, curved surface |
| Flow | Downsloping of materials as a viscous fluid |
| Slides | Mass wasting of material as a coherent mass along a planar surface or through the air |
| Rockslides | Fastest and most dangerous form of mass wasting |
| Lagoon | Shadow body of water separated from a larger body by a narrow landform like a barrier island |
| Tarn | Mountain lake formed in a cirque |
| Spring Tides | Larger tides that occur during new moons and full moons |
| Neap Tides | Smaller tides that occur 7 days after a new moon or full moon |
| Butte | Isolated hill with steep sides and a small, flat top |
| Cirro- | Cloud classificaiton meaning curl of hair and high up |
| Strato- | Cloud classification meaning layered |
| Alto- | Cloud classification meaning mid |
| Nimbo- | Cloud classification meaning precipitation |
| Cumulo- | Cloud classification meaning heap |
| Fjord | A long, narrow sea inlet with steep sides or cliffs in a valley formed by a glacier |
| Ria | Geological feature formed when rising sea levels or coastal subsidence flood an existing river valley |
| Graben | Valley formed by a block of earth's crust dropping between two parallel faults |
| Caldera | Large cauldron-like depression formed after a volcano erupts and collapses |
| Westerlies | Prevailing winds from 30-60 degrees latitude that blow from east to west |
| Laurasia | Northern supercontinent formed from Pangaea |
| Gondwana | Southern supercontinent formed from Pangaea |
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