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bio-dec 2025
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| what type of microscopes are we using? | compound light microscope |
| scanning electron microscope | views external surface |
| transmission electron microscope | views inside an object |
| What are the characteristics of life? | organization+cells, response to stimuli, homeostasis, metabolism, growth/development, reproduction, and evolution |
| what are the 3 themes in biology? | diversity + Unity of life, interdependence of organisms, and evolution |
| what is diversity and unity of life? | life is diverse, all have a common ancestor, made of cells, DNA, 3 domains of life what is interdependence of organisms? |
| what is evolution of life? | evolution/natural selection |
| what are the 6 steps of the scientific method? | observe, hypothesis, design experiment, collect/analyze data, draw conclusions, share |
| how do you determine the magnification of a microscope? | multiply the eyepiece and objective lens |
| what is an organelle? | smallest structures within cells |
| tissues | group of cells with a similar function |
| organs | group of tissues with a similar function |
| system | group of organs with similar function |
| What are the 3 domains of life? | Domain Bacteria (Kingdom Bacteria), domain Archea (Kingdom Archea), and Domain Eukarya (Kingdom Prostista, Kingdom fungi, Kingdom plantar, Kingdom animalia) |
| What is Kingdom protista? | amoeba, paramecium |
| What are the 2 ways growth can occur? | Cell division or cell enlargement |
| natural selection | favorable traits are passed down to the next generation |
| mass | the quantity of matter an object has |
| weight | gravity pulling on mass |
| Orbital | 3d region around nucleus that shows electrons |
| mass number (atomic mass) | protons + neutrons |
| isotopes | atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons |
| Compound | when 2 or more elements combine together by chemical bonds |
| Covalent bonds | when 2 atoms share electrons |
| Ion | changed atom (different number of electrons) |
| Ionic bond | when atoms gain/lose electrons and form a bond |
| cation | positive ion (loses electrons) |
| anion | negative ion (gains electrons) |
| reactant | starting substance, enters the chemical reaction |
| products | substance produced during chemical reaction |
| activation energy | energy needed to get reaction to occur |
| enzymes | biological catalyst that lowers activation energy |
| exergonic reaction | reaction that releases energy |
| endergonic reaction | reaction that absorbs energy |
| Oxidation/ Reduction reactions | (redox reactions) chemical reaction where electrons are exchanged between atoms |
| oxidation | loses electrons, becomes positive |
| reduction | gains electrons, becomes negative |
| polar | uneven distribution of charge in a compound |
| water is polar covalent which means | oxygen region is slightly negative and the hydrogen end is slightly positive the polarity of water makes it capable of dissolving other polar substances |
| what saying can be used to describe how things dissolve? | "likes dissolve likes" |
| what is hydrogen bonding? | attraction between a hydrogen (+) and a molecule (-) |
| cohesion | attractive force that holds molecules of a single substance together |
| adhesion | attractive force between particles of a different substance |
| capillarity | rise of water through narrow tubes |
| what does hydrogen bonding allow for? | cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, temp moderation, density of ice surface tension skin found on the surface of water due to hydrogen bonding |
| temperature moderation | water can absorb a large amount of energy as heat; ability to cool surfaces through evaporation density of ice |
| solution | mixture where one or more substances are uniformly distributed (can be solid, liquid, or gas) |
| solute substance | being dissolved |
| solvent | substance that dissolves |
| concentration | amount of solute in ratio to solvent |
| saturated solution | more solute can be dissolved |
| acidic solutions | have more hydrogen (H+) than hydroxide (OH-) |
| basic solutions | have more hydroxide (OH-) than hydrogen (H+) |
| less than 7 on the pH scale means | acid |
| more than 7 on the pH scale means | base |
| 7 on the pH scale means | the solution is neutral |
| buffers | chemicals that neutralize effects of adding small amounts of a base or acid to a solution |
| indicators | tell if something is an acid or base |
| types of indicators | lithmus paper (red acid, blue base), pH paper (gives exact pH #), bromthymol blue (yellow in acid, blue in base), and Phenophthalein clear in acid, pink in base) |
| organic compound | compound that contains carbon atoms |
| inorganic compound | compound that doesn't have carbon atoms |
| How many covalent bonds does carbon have? | 4 |
| What are the only 2 things that have carbon that are inorganic? | carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide |
| What can carbon bond with? | C, O, N, and H |
| what is a single bond? | 1 pair of shared electrons |
| what is a double bond? | 2 pairs of shared electrons |
| what is a triple bond? | 3 pairs of shared electrons |
| what is a functional group? | a group that influences the properties of molecules |
| what are the 4 functional groups? | 1. OH: hydroxyl (alcohol) 2. COOH: carboxyl (acid) 3. NH2: amino 4. PO4: phosphate |
| Functional groups change hydrocarbons (_________) to polar so they dissolve in water | nonpolar |
| condensation reaction | joins monomers to form polymonomers |
| condensation reactions release | water |
| condensation reactions are anabolic which means it is a | building reaction |
| condemnation reactions are also sometimes called | dehydration synthesis |
| what is a hydrolysis reaction? | when water is used to split polymers into monomers |
| hydrolysis reactions are catabolic which means they are | breakdown reactions |
| What does ATP stand for | adenosine TriPhosphate |
| What does ATP do? | stores and releases energy during cell processes allowing organisms to function |
| what does ADP stand for? | Adenosine DiPhosphate |
| what does ADP do? | breaks off one phosphate group and releases energy for the cell |
| what elements are in carbs? | C, H, and O |
| ratio for carbs | 1 carbon: 2 hydrogen: 1 oxygen |
| carbon is | the main source of energy and structural materials in organisms |
| what are the 3 forms of carbs? | monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides |
| what is the formula for monosaccharides? | C6 H12 O6 |
| what is an isomer? | has the same chemical formula, but a different structural formula |
| what are the 3 isomers of monosaccharides? | glucose (main source of energy from ATP to ADP), fructose (fruit), and galactose (milk) |
| Disaccharides | 2 monosaccharides joined by condensation |
| with disaccharides, hydrogen should be | double the oxygen |
| what is a polysaccharide? | many monosaccharides joined by condensation |
| Examples of polysaccharides | starch (long chain of glucose), Cellulose (found in plant cell walls, insoluble fiber for humans), and Glycogen (storage form of glucose found in liver and muscle cells for energy) |
| What are proteins made of? | C, H, O, and N |
| what are the functions of proteins? | structure and defense |
| examples of where proteins are found | enzymes, hormones (insulin), horns, nails, hair (keratin), muscles |
| what foods is protein in | meat, nuts, eggs, beans, and peanut butter |
| what is an amino acid? | monomer of protein |
| how many types of amino acids are there? | 20 |
| what determines a proteins shape/ function? | the sequence of amino acids |
| What is a dipeptide? | when 2 amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds in a condensation reaction |
| What are polypeptides? | long chain of amino acids |
| what is an enzyme? | speeds up chemical reactions by binding to specific substance |
| substrate | the reactant being catalyzed by and enzyme |
| active site | place on enzyme where substrate fits |
| ES (enzyme substrate) complex | enzyme attached to a substrate that reduces the activation energy |
| Substrates change, but enzymes are | reusable |
| lock and key model | specific enzyme for a substrate |
| induced fit model | enzyme changes shape to fit |
| denaturization | enzymes destroyed by high temperatures |
| what is a lipid? | non polar molecules that store energy |
| what are lipids important for? | cell membranes, padding, and insulation |
| what are the elements in lipids? | C, H, and O |
| what is the ratio of elements for lipids? | (no set ratio); high carbon and hydrogen to oxygen |
| monomers of lipids | glycerol and fatty acids |
| what is a fatty acid? | unbranched long carbon with a carboxyl group attached |
| saturated | animal origin, solid at room temp, all single bonds |
| unsaturated | plant origin, liquid at room temp, has double bonds, has a bend |
| what is a triglyceride? | consists of 3 Fatty acids and 1 glycerol |
| phospholipids | make up cells membranes; 2 fatty acids and 1 glycerol |
| waxes | one fatty acid chain joined to one glycerol |
| steroids | 4 fused carbon rings (ex- cholesterol) |
| what is a nucleic acid? | stores/transports genetic info |
| what elements are in Nucleic acids? | C, H, O, N, and P |
| what are the 2 forms of nucleic acids? | DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) |
| what is the monomer of nucleic acids? | necleotides |
| what is in a nucleotide? | phosphate, 5-c sugar, and a nitrogenous base |
| what does DNA do? | contains all genetic info for cell activities |
| what does RNA do? | help make proteins that can act as enzymes |
| Who discovered cells in slices of cork in 1665? | Robert hooke |
| why did Robert hooke call them cells? | because they looked like cubicles |
| who was the 1st to observe living cells (microrganisms) in 1673? | Anton van Leeuwenhoek |
| what did Anton van Leeuwenhoek call living cells? | animalcules (now called protists) |
| who discovered plant cells in 1838? | Matthias Schielden |
| who discovered animal cells in 1839? | Theodor Schwann |
| who determined that cells come from preexisting cells in 1855? | Rudolf Virchow |
| what are chemical reactions called in the cell? | metabolism |
| 3 statements of cell theory | 1. all living organisms are made of one or more cells 2. cells are the basic units of structure/function 3. cells come from prexisting cells |
| a cell' shape reflects its _________ | function |
| how big are most cells? | 10-50 micrometers |
| ____________ of a cell increases much faster than the ________________ | Volume; surface area |
| What ratio do we want? | Large surface area: small volume |
| SA increases by a factor of | 2 |
| Volume increases by a factor of | 3 |
| What can too little surface area do to a cell? | Not allow materials to enter/exit quick enough |
| What are the 3 basic parts of a cell? | Plasma (cell) membrane, cytoplasm, control center |
| what are the functions of the cell membrane | outer boundary, cover cell surface, and barrier |
| what are the parts of cytoplasm? | fluid, cytoskeleton, and organelles except nucleus |
| what is the part of the control center? | nucleus |
| what is a prokaryote? | Lacks nucleus + membrane bound organelles |
| what is a eukaryote? | contain nucleus + membrane bound organelles |
| what is the plasma membrane made of? | a phospholipid bilayer that has proteins embedded throughout |
| what is the fluid mosaic model? | states that phospholipid bilayer acts more like a fluid than a solid |
| what is the function of the nucleus? | direct cell activities and store DNA in the form of chromatin |
| what is the nuclear envelope? | a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus |
| what is the nucleolus? | makes ribosomes and RNA |
| what is the function of the mitochondria? | cellular respiration |
| what is the mitochondria known as? | the powerhouse of the cell |
| what is the inner membrane of the mitochondria? | cristae |
| what is the fluid on the outside of the mitochondria? | matrix |
| what does ER stand for? | endoplasmic reticulum |
| what does the smooth ER do? | builds lipids, detoxification, and transports lipids to golgi body |
| what does the rough ER do? | has ribosomes, transports proteins to golgi body |
| where are free ribosomes found? | cytoplasm |
| where are attached ribosomes found? | surface of rough ER |
| what do ribosomes do? | make proteins |
| what does the golgi apparatus do? | process/package proteins and lipids from the ER (post office) |
| what are the 2 different vesicles? | lysosomes and peroxisomes |
| what do lysosomes do? | digest old cell parts, whole cell when it dies, and food+ bacteria |
| what do peroxisomes do? | detoxification (break down H2 O2 into H2O + O2) |
| what do vesicles do? | carry proteins from ER to golgi |
| some vesicles are ____________ out of the cell and some stay inside | released |
| what is the cytoskeleton made of? | protein fibers |
| what does the cytoskeleton do? | helps cells move and maintain their shape |
| what is a microtubule? | hallow protein (largest) |
| what are microfilaments? | solid proteins (smallest) |
| what are centrioles? | microtubules involved in cell division |
| what is the cilia? | short hair like structures that help cells move/filter particles |
| what is the flagella? | long hair like structures that whip for movement |
| what do plant cells have that others do not? | cell walls, central vacuoles, and plastids |
| what is the cell wall (primary)? | rigid structure made of cellulose |
| what is the function of the primary cell wall? | provide support and protection (on the outside of the cell) |
| what is the secondary cell wall? | some plants produce it just inside the primary cell wall |
| what is the large central vacuole? | stores water, enzymes, and waste. provides support for plant tissue |
| what is the function of a plastids? | store starch and pigments |
| what does chloroplast do? | converts light energy into chemical energy by photosynthesis |
| what is the thylakoid? | a sac filled with fluid |
| what is a grana? | stacks of thylakoids (coin shaped thingy) |
| what is the stroma? | the fluid surrounding thylakoids |
| what does the leukoplast do? | store starch |
| what is the chromoplast? | stores red, orange, and yellow pigments |
| what is passive transport? | the movement of molecules across the cell membrane without using energy (ATP) |
| What is diffusion? | movement of molecules from an area of higher to lower concentration driven by kinetic energy until equilibrium is reached |
| what do molecules move across the cell membrane based on? | small enough to pass through pores in the membrane, lipid soluble (nonpolar), and uncharged molecules |
| what is the concentration gradient? | difference in concentration across a distance; molecules naturally move from more to less concentration; greater the difference in concentration, the faster the movement |
| what is osmosis? | diffusion of water across a membrane with the gradient |
| what is the direction of osmosis determined by? | the solute concentrations on both sides of the membrane |
| what does hypertonic mean? | the solute concentration on the outside of the cell is higher than inside the cell |
| what is hypertonic called in a plant cell? | plasmolysis |
| what is hypertonic called in an animal cell? | crenation |
| what does hypotonic mean? | the solute concentration on the outside of the cell is lower than inside the cell |
| what is hypotonic called in a plant cell? | turgor pressure |
| what is hypotonic called in an animal cell? | lysis |
| what's does isotonic mean? | the solute concentration outside the cell is equal to inside the cell |
| in what type of osmosis are cells in homeostasis? | isotonic |
| what is facilitated diffusion? | when molecules bind to a carrier protein on one side of the cell membrane |
| does a carrier protein change its shape? | yes |
| carrier proteins move down the _________ _______________ | concentration gradient |
| what is an ion channel? | proteins that provide small passageways across the cell membrane through which specific ions can diffuse (only works for certain ions) |
| what is active transport? | movement of molecules across the cell membrane from an area of low concentration to high concentration |
| what is an Na/K pump? | Sodium-Potassium pump; moves 3 Na+ ions into the cell's external environment for every 2 K+ ions it moves into the cell |
| what is endocytosis? | when cells ingest external materials by folding around them and forming a pouch |
| what is pinocytosis? | engulfing of solute/fluids |
| what is phagocytosis? | engulfing of large particles of food or cells |
| what is exocytosis? | |
| what does a chloroplast do? | convert light energy into chemical energy by photosynthesis |
| what does photosynthesis do? | converts light, CO2, and water to form organic compounds (glucose) and oxygen |
| what is autotroph? | organism that does photosynthesis to make its own food (producer) |
| what is a heterotroph? | organism that gets energy from food (consumer) |
| what do the light reactions do? | convert light into chemical energy (ATP and NADPH) |
| what do dark reactions do? | form organic compounds using CO2 and energy stored in ATP and NADPH |
| what is the light reactions equation? | 6CO2+6H2O+light=C6 H12 O6+ 6O2 |
| what is another name for the visible light spectrum? | ROY G BIV |
| what do pigments do? | absorb certain colors of light and reflect or transmit the other colors |
| where are the chloroplast pigments? | in the thylakoid membrane |
| what is the main pigment called? | chlorophyll a |
| what does chlorophyll a do? | absorb less blue and more red pigments (involved directly in light reactions) |
| what are the accessory pigments? | chlorophyll b and carotenoids |
| what does chlorophyll b do? | absorbs more blue than red (assists chlorophyll a) |
| what do carotenoids do? | absorb colors other pigments can't (orange, yellow, brown) |
| what is a photosystem? | groups of pigements and proteins in the thylakoid membrane |
| where do light reactions take place? | in the thylakoid membrane |
| what is the first step of light reactions? | light strikes electrons in photosystem 2 and 1; each system loses an electron |
| what is the second step in light reactions? | electrons go to primary electron acceptor |
| what is the third step in light reactions? | both electrons are passed down an electron transport chain (ETC) |
| what is the 4th step in light reactions? | one generates ATP while the other generates NADPH |
| what is a photolysis? | water splitting enzyme that splits water into protons, electrons, and oxygen (2H2O=4H+ +4e-+O2 |
| what happens from photolysis? | hydrogen (protons) are left inside the thylakoid, oxygen is released into air, electrons replace ones lost in photosystem 2, and electrons from photosystem 2 replace electrons in photosystem 1 |
| what is chemiosmosis? | movement of H+ through ATP synthase into the stroma is used to produce ATP |
| what does the Calvin cycle use? | carbon dioxide and H+ from NADP+ |
| what is carbon fixation? | converting inorganic carbon into organic compounds (sugars) |
| what is the 1st step in the Calvin cycle? | carbon dioxide that enter the leaves of plants and diffuses into the cells that contain chloroplasts |
| what is the 2nd step in the Calvin cycle? | a molecule of CO2 is fixed to and existing 5c sugar by the enzyme RuBisCo |
| what is the 3rd step in the Calvin cycle? | the 6c sugar that results is unstable and splits in 2 |
| what is the 4th step in the Calvin cycle? | a series of reactions occur where ATP and NADPH donate energy and matter to create a molecule of glucose |
| what is the 5th step in the Calvin cycle? | the 5c sugar originally used is regenerated and the cycle continues |
| what is a C4 pathway? | (used by plants in hot dry climates), have their stomata (small pores under surface of leaves) partially closed during hottest part of day. CO2 is fixed into sugar (4-C) even when CO2 level is low and O2 level is high |
| what is a CAM pathway? | use carbon fixation at night and Calvin cycle during day to minimize water loss |
| what factors affect photosynthesis? | light intensity, CO2 levels, and temp |
| As light intensity goes up, photosynthesis also goes up until | electrons get as excited as they can get and the rate levels out |
| what happens to stomata when they get too hot? | the pores close, limiting water loss and entry of carbon dioxide |
| what is cellular respiration? | process of breaking down organic compounds to produce ATP |
| what are the 2 stages of cellular respiration? | glycolysis and aerobic or anaerobic respiration |
| where does glycolysis take place? | in the cytosol |
| what is formed through glycolysis? | pyruvic acid (pyruvate) |
| how many ATP does glycolysis make? | 4 |
| how many ATP does glycolysis take in? | 2 |
| what is the electron carrier in glycolysis? | NAD+ |
| is fermentation anaerobic or aerobic? | anaerobic |
| what does anaerobic mean? | does not have oxygen |
| what does aerobic mean | has oxygen |
| does fermentation produce ATP | no |
| what does fermentation regenerate that allows for continued production of ATP through glycolysis? | NAD+ |
| what happens in lactic acid fermentation? | an enzyme converts 3c pyruvic acid into another 3c compound called lactic acid |
| where does lactic acid fermentation take place? | muscle cells |
| what happens during alcohol fermentation? | 3c pyruvic acid is changed into 2c ethyl alcohol and CO2 |
| what organisms do alcohol fermentation? | some plants and unicellular organisms such as yeast and bacteria |
| what does alcohol fermentation make? | beer, wine, bread, cheese, yogurt, sour cream, vinegar |
| what % of energy available from oxidation of glucose is captured by ATP? | 2% |
| are glycolysis and fermentation efficient at making ATP? | no |
| where does aerobic cellular respiration take place? | in the mitochondria |
| where does the Krebs cycle take place? | mitochondrial matrix |
| where does the ETC and chemiosmosis take place? | cristae |
| what happens during the intermediate step? | 3c pyruvic acid produced in glycolysis reacts with coenzyme A to form Acetyl CoA (2c) |
| what are the products of the intermediate step? | CO2, NADH, and acetyl CoA |
| what is formed from the Krebs cycle? | 6c citric acid |
| how many turns of the Krebs cycle does it take to break down citric acid? | 1 |
| why does the Krebs cycle turn 2x? | because there are 2 acetyl CoA |
| what are the products of the Krebs cycle? | 2 ATP, 6 CO2, 8 NADH, and 2 FADH |
| what happens during ETC and chemiosmosis? | high energy electrons in NADH and FADH2 are passed from molecule to molecule in the ETC in cristae |
| what ions do NADH and FADH2 give up into the intermembrane space? | H+ ions |
| how many ATP are produced during ETC and chemiosmosis? | 32-34 |
| how much more efficient is aerobic respiration than glycolysis and fermentation? | 20 x more efficient |
Created by:
gschultz2028