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MEGA A&P FINAL
| Question | Answer |
|---|---|
| Define anatomy and physiology | Anatomy- refers to the internal an external structures (or form) of the body and their physical relationships Physiology refers to the functions of those structures (example: muscle contraction, electrical activity of a brain cell) |
| Biological levels of organization | Organism level Organ system level Organ level Tissue level Cell level Chemical level |
| 11 organ systems | 1. Integumentary 2. Skeletal 3. Muscular 4. Nervous 5. Cardiovascular 6. Endocrine 7. Lymphatic 8. Digestive 9. Respiratory 10. Urinary 11. Reproductive |
| Example of a feedback loop: thermoregulation | Sensor: body temperature exceeds 37C Control- Nerve cells in skin and brain Effector- sweat glands throughout body Response- increased heat loss |
| Major functions of cells | 1. Metabolism 2. Synthesis 3. Communication 4. Reproduction |
| Ionotropic | 1. binds with ionic ligands to open channels 2. works as a channel 3. fast 4. short lasting |
| Metabotropic | 1. binds with chemical ligands, initiating a cascade of events 2. not a channel 3. LINKED TO G PROTEIN 4. slow 5. wide spread |
| Diffusion | 1. High to low |
| Active Transport | 1. Low to high 2. needs energy |
| Hypertonic | - Solution leaves cell - Cells crenates |
| Hypotonic | - Solution enters cell - Cell lysis |
| Isotonic | equal vibes |
| General composition of a cell | Cells+ECM=Tissues |
| 4 Primary tissue types | 1. Epithelial 2. Connective 3. Muscle 4. Nervous |
| List the major functions of CTs | Enclosing and separating other tissues Connecting tissues to one another Supporting and moving the body Storing compounds Cushioning and insulating Transportation Protection |
| 1st degree burns: | Do not penetrate the basement membrane which is the ECM rich barrier between the epidermis and dermis. They cause pain, redness, and swelling |
| 2nd degree burns: | Pass and destroy the basement membrane reaching the dermis. They cause pain, redness, swelling, and blistering |
| 3rd degree burns: | Pass and destroy the adipose barrier reaching areas deeper. These have numerous complications including: sepsis and more junk |
| Stage 0 Melanoma | melanoma confined to epidermal region of skin >99% survival rate |
| Stage 1 Melanoma | localised disease, only in skin and very thin ~99% survival rate |
| Stage 2Melanoma | localised disease thicker than stage 1 ~98% survival rate |
| Stage 3 Melanoma | spread to the lymph nodes ~64% survival rate |
| Stage 4 Melanoma | spread to other organs ~23% survival rate |
| Cardinal sign of inflammation: | Heat- due to vasodilation (the widening of blood vessels) Redness- due to vasodilation Swelling- accumulation of fluid and cells Pain- due to stimulation of sensory neurons (nociceptors) Loss of function- due to tissue damage |
| Stages of the Inflammatory Response 1 | Nail enters the body, killing cells. Chemical mediators of inflammation are now released. E.g: Histamines- chemical molecules that act as messengers in the body |
| Stages of the Inflammatory Response 2 | Capillaries dilate and become leaky. This increases blood flow and clotting factors can diffuse into tissue. |
| Stages of the Inflammatory Response 3 | Immune cells, water, and proteins migrate into injury site causing tissues to swell (edema) |
| Stages of the Inflammatory Response 4 | Phagocytic cells (macrophages) consume pathogens and debris |
| Characteristics of epithelial tissues | Mostly composed of cells: very little ECM Covers body surfaces Have exposed surfaces (apical) Attaches to basement membrane (basal) Avascular Capable of regenerating |
| General functions of the integumentary | Protections Sensation Temperature Regulation Vitamin D productions. Excretion |
| epidermis | superficial layer of skin- of ETs These superficial cell layers of the epidermis protect against the potential damage from abrasion and reduces water loss through the skin The epidermis is positioned upon the dermis |
| dermis | a layer of connective tissue. The dermis is deep relative to the superficial epidermis The dermis is what gives skin its strength and durability. For instance, leather is composed of animal dermis that is preserved in a process called tanning |
| Hypodermis | faaaatttt |
| does the epidermis have blood vessels? | nah |
| Epidermis layers | Bitches Shit Goo, Later Cum (Basale, Spinosum, Granuloem, Lucidum, Corneum) But flip dat |
| Stratum basale | deepest layer of epidermis. A single layer of cells attached to basement membrane |
| Stratum spinosum | 8-10 layers of recently born keratinocytes. As these cells move superficially, they begin to flatten and produce a fiber protein called keratin |
| Stratum granulosum | 2-5 layers of flattened cells. Here is where cells die |
| Stratum lucidum | 3-5 layers of dead and transparent cells. Only present in thick skin, absent in most thin skin. Found in palms of feet and hands. Shiny and reflective |
| Stratum cornium | 25 or more layers of dead squamous cells and keratin fibers. These layers prevent water loss and protect against abrasion. |
| the factors that determine skin color include | Pigments in the skin Blood circulation |
| Melanin acts to | block UV light and protect stem cells of the stratum basale |
| Intravenous (IV) | injections directly into blood via vein Intramuscular- injections into muscle which is quickly absorbed by surrounding blood vessels |
| Intramuscular | injections into muscle which is quickly absorbed by surrounding blood vessels |
| Subcutaneous | injections into hypodermis, mostly fat and collagen. This area has little blood supply |
| Intradermal | injections into dermis, with very slow absorption and allows for longer lasting effects of drugs |
| Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) | It is thought that vitamin d deficiency is a contributor to SAD as low levels of vitamin D, caused by low dietary intake of the vitamin or not enough exposure to sunshine, have been found in people with SAD |
| Pressure Ulcers Causes | Lesions are caused by lack of blood flow to areas that have been subjected to prolonged pressure Typically occur over bony prominences Can develop in just hours Mostly heal incompletely and prevention is best treatment |
| Pressure Ulcers Treatments | Cleaning and bandage wound Removing damaged tissue (debride). Severe causes may require surgery Negative pressure: vacuum-assisted closure, or would vac, helps promote blood flow |
| Pressure Ulcers Prevention | Quitting smoking- will improve blood circulation Exercise Ensuring proper fluid intake |
| Explain the role of Vitamin D in bone homeostasis | Vitamin D and its metabolites are a crucial part of the endocrine system that controls whole body calcium homeostasis. This serves to regulate serum calcium levels so that they are maintained within a very narrow range |
| Vitamin D is important for the regulation of | calcium homeostasis |
| Hypocalcemia | Signals parathyroid gland to release parathyroid hormone (PTH) PTH instructs kidneys to form calcitriol, active form of Vitamin D |
| Hypercalcemia | Signals thyroid glands to secrete calcitonin Calcitonin inhibits osteoclasts |
| Calcium homeostasis | Two different negative feedback loops Regulating Ca Levels Calcitonin is realised in response to high calcium PTH and vitamin d (calcitriol) in response to low calcium |
| Functions of skeletal system 1-3 | 1. Bones protect organs from physical damage 2. Bones store adipose tissue that can release lipids into blood as a source of energy. 3. Many bones contain cavities filled with red bone marrow, which gives rise to blood cells and platelets. |
| Functions of skeletal system 4-6 | 4. Some minerals in the blood are stored in bone (calcium, phosphorous) These minerals are released into the blood when needed. 5. Muscles attach to bones by tendons allowing movement. 6. Rigid support |
| Osteoblasts | are bone-forming cells- Active when there is high calcium |
| Osteocytes | are mature bone cells- Formed by mature osteoblasts when there is high calcium |
| Osteoclasts | resorb or break down bone- Active when there is low calcium |
| Osteogenic cell | Bone stem cell called an osteogenic cell make new osteoblasts and osteoclasts |
| Fibrous- | Least Synarthroses are non moveable joints Fibrous joints are synarthroses FiSy |
| Cartilaginous- | Medium Amphiarthroses are slightly moveable joints Cartilaginous joints tend to be amphiarthroses CaAm |
| Synovial- | Most Diarthroses are freely moveable joints Synovial joints are diarthroses SyDi |
| Skeletal muscle | Fibers: striated, tubular and multi nucleated Voluntary Usually attached to skeleton Found in: around bone |
| Smooth muscle | Fibers: non-striated, spindle-shaped, and uninucleated Involuntary Usually covering walls of internal organs Found in: stomach, intestines, blood vessels |
| Cardiac muscles | Fibers: straited, branched and uninucleated Involuntary Only covering walls of the heart Found in: around the heart |
| Sliding Filament Model 1-2 | 1. Calcium release: A nerve impulse triggers the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum. 2. Binding sites exposed: The calcium ions cause the proteins tropomyosin and troponin to shift, exposing the binding sites on the actin filaments. |
| Sliding Filament Model 3-4 | 3. Cross-bridge formation: The myosin heads, energized by ATP, attach to the newly exposed binding sites on the actin filaments 4. Power stroke: The myosin head pivots, pulling the actin filament toward the center of the sarcomere. |
| Sliding Filament Model 5-6 | 5. Detachment: A new ATP molecule binds to the myosin head, causing it to detach from the actin. 6. Repetition: The ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and phosphate, and the myosin head is re-energized to bind to a new site on the actin filament |
| Describe the structure of a neuromuscular junction (NMJ). | a synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber, composed of three main parts: the presynaptic terminal of the motor neuron, the synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic membrane (motor end-plate) of the muscle fiber |
| Describe the steps of Na/K+ Pump | u got this.... |
| Depolarization | Na+ in |
| Repolarization | K+ out |
| Low Myosin ATPase activity | Slow twitch |
| High Myosin ATPase activity | Fast twitch |
| Types of slow twitch fibers | Type 1 |
| Types of fast twitch fibers | Type 2 2A (fast oxidative) and 2B (fast glycotic) |
| Slow Twitch Type 1 MYOGLOBIN Level | High |
| Fast Twitch Type 2A MYOGLOBIN Level | High |
| Fast Twitch Type 2B MYOGLOBIN Level | Low |
| Slow Twitch Type 1 GLYCOGEN Level | Low |
| Fast Twitch Type 2A GLYCOGEN Level | Low |
| Fast Twitch Type 2B GLYCOGEN Level | High |
| Grey Matter | in the brain and spinal cord is made up of neuronal bodies- 40% of the brain. Finishes developing once a person reaches their 20s. |
| White Matter | is composed of nerve fibers and their insulative myelin wrapping- 60% of the brain. Being finetuned right now. Develops throughout the 20’s. Important for me. |
| Frontal Lobe | Motor control (premotor cortex) Problem solving (prefrontal area- makes sure you are not bad) Speed production (Broca’s area) |
| Parietal Lobe | Touch perception (somatosensory cortex) Body orientation and sensory discrimination |
| Temporal Lobe | Auditory processing Language comprehension (Wernwicke’s area) Memory/ information retrieval (hippocampus) |
| Occipital Lobe | Sight Visual reception and visual interpretation |
| CNS | is composed of the brain and spinal cord. It receives sensory signals, integrates them (computes), and sends information to the body |
| PNS | is responsible for detecting stimuli in and around the body and sending them to CNS. |
| Sensory afferents... | Sensory afferents direct information to CNS |
| Motor efferents... | Motor efferent direct information away from the CNS |
| Somatic efferents.... | Somatic efferents connect to skeletal muscles (voluntary) |
| Autonomic efferents .... | Autonomic efferents connect to smooth muscles, glands, organs (involuntary) |
| Neurons vs glia | Neurons are the electrically active cells that transmit signals, while glial cells are supporting cells that provide structure, support, and protection for neurons |
| Astrocytes | CNS |
| Schwann | PNS |
| Microglia | CNS |
| An excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) | will depolarize the neuron making ti more like to generate an AP |
| An inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) | will hyperpolarize the neuron making it less likely to generate an AP |
| AD Cause | Amyloid plaques or clumps of protein fragments that build up between brain cells, disrupting their function and are considered a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease 95% sporadic, 5% genetic |
| AD Environmental/lifestyle risks: | head trauma, cardiovascular disease, obesity, smoking, diabetes, and social isolation |
| AD Protective factors | regular exercise, cognitive stimulation, healthy diet, strong social connections |
| AD Treatments | Cholinesterase inhibitors- can increase Ach in synapse to improve memory and cognition Disease modifying agents targeting removal of amyloid beta plaques have all failed clinical trials |
| MDD Symptoms | markedly diminished interest or pleasure (anhedonia), sleep disturbance, fatigue or lack of energy, cognitive decline, trouble speaking or moving (psychomotor dysfunction), and recurring thoughts of death |
| MDD Causes | The most popular theory for depression is neurochemical imbalance- dysregulation of monoamine neurotransmitters- serotonin (5-HT), norepinephrine (NE), dopamine (DA) Competing theories involve a dysfunctional stress response and psychosocial factors |
| MDD Treatment | SSRIs/SNRIs |
| MDD Therapies | Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT): Interpersonal therapy (IPT): Focuses on improving relationships and communications Mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT): Combines CBT with meditation techniques |
| MDD Advanced Therapies | Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)- a medical treatment that involves passing electrical currents through the brain to induce a brief seizure Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)- non invasive! |
| PD Symptoms | Motor symptoms: resting tremor, slow movement (bradykinesia), rigidity, postural and gate instability, and reduced facial expression Non-motor symptoms: depression, sleep disturbance, loss of smell, and cognitive decline |
| PD Primary Pathology | Primary pathology- loss of dopaminergic neurons of the substantia nigra leading to decreased dopamine in midbrain |
| PD Treatment | Dopamine replacement: Levodopa (L-dopa) is a precursor to dopamine. When ingested, the brain converts L-dopa into active dopamine Monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitors block the breakdown of dopamine in the synapse |
| PD Advanced Therapies | Deep brain stimulation (DBS): electrodes implanted in basal ganglia Improves motor symptoms |
| ANS | The ANS is a component of the PNS that regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal |
| Parasympathetic Functions | Pupils constrict Airways relax Decreased heart rate Stimulate saliva production Stimulates production of digestive enzymes Contraction of bladder Increased blood flow to genitals |
| Sympathetic Functions | Pupils dilate Airways dilate Increased heart rate Inhibit function of intestines Conversion of stored glycogen to glucose |
Created by:
liladdoyle