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final exam
16, 19, 20, 21
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| credentialism | the emphasis on certificates or degrees to show that a person has a certain skill, has attained a certain level of education, or has met certain job qualifications |
| cultural capital | cultural knowledge that serves (metaphorically) as currency to help one navigate a culture |
| cultural transmission | the way people come to learn the values, beliefs, and social norms of their culture |
| education | a social institution through which a society’s children are taught basic academic knowledge, learning skills, and cultural norms |
| formal education | the learning of academic facts and concepts |
| grade inflation | the idea that the achievement level associated with an A today is notably lower than the achievement level associated with A-level work a few decades ago |
| Head Start program | a federal program that provides academically focused preschool to students of low socioeconomic status |
| hidden curriculum | the type of nonacademic knowledge that people learn through informal learning and cultural transmission |
| informal education | education that involves learning about cultural values, norms, and expected behaviors through participation in a society |
| No Child Left Behind Act | an act that requires states to test students in prescribed grades, with the results of those tests determining eligibility to receive federal funding |
| social placement | the use of education to improve one’s social standing |
| sorting | classifying students based on academic merit or potential |
| tracking | a formalized sorting system that places students on “tracks” (advanced, low achievers) that perpetuate inequalities |
| universal access | the equal ability of all people to participate in an education system |
| anxiety disorders | feelings of worry and fearfulness that last for months at a time |
| commodification | the changing of something not generally thought of as a commodity into something that can be bought and sold in a marketplace |
| contested illnesses | illnesses that are questioned or considered questionable by some medical professionals |
| demedicalization | the social process that normalizes “sick” behavior |
| disability | a reduction in one’s ability to perform everyday tasks; the World Health Organization notes that this is a social limitation |
| epidemiology | the study of the incidence, distribution, and possible control of diseases |
| impairment | the physical limitations a less-able person faces |
| individual mandate | a government rule that requires everyone to have insurance coverage or they will have to pay a penalty |
| legitimation | the act of a physician certifying that an illness is genuine |
| medical sociology | the systematic study of how humans manage issues of health and illness, disease and disorders, and healthcare for both the sick and the healthy |
| medicalization | the process by which aspects of life that were considered bad or deviant are redefined as sickness and needing medical attention to remedy |
| medicalization of deviance | the process that changes “bad” behavior into “sick” behavior |
| mood disorders | long-term, debilitating illnesses like depression and bipolar disorder |
| morbidity | the incidence of disease |
| mortality | the number of deaths in a given time or place |
| personality disorders | disorders that cause people to behave in ways that are seen as abnormal to society but seem normal to them |
| private healthcare | health insurance that a person buys from a private company; private healthcare can either be employer-sponsored or direct-purchase |
| public healthcare | health insurance that is funded or provided by the government |
| sick role | the pattern of expectations that define appropriate behavior for the sick and for those who take care of them |
| social epidemiology | the study of the causes and distribution of diseases |
| socialized medicine | when the government owns and runs the entire healthcare system |
| stereotype interchangeability | stereotypes that don’t change and that get recycled for application to a new subordinate group |
| stigmatization | the act of spoiling someone's identity; they are labeled as different, discriminated against, and sometimes even shunned due to an illness or disability |
| stigmatization of illness | illnesses that are discriminated against and whose sufferers are looked down upon or even shunned by society |
| underinsured | people who spend at least 10 percent of their income on healthcare costs that are not covered by insurance |
| universal healthcare | a system that guarantees healthcare coverage for everyone |
| sustainable development | development that occurs without depleting or damaging the natural environment |
| asylum-seekers | those whose claim to refugee status have not been validated |
| cancer cluster | a geographic area with high levels of cancer within its population |
| carrying capacity | the amount of people that can live in a given area considering the amount of available resources |
| climate change | long-term shifts in temperature and climate due to human activity |
| concentric zone model | a model of human ecology that views cities as a series of circular rings or zones |
| cornucopian theory | a theory that asserts human ingenuity will rise to the challenge of providing adequate resources for a growing population |
| demographic transition theory | a theory that describes four stages of population growth, following patterns that connect birth and death rates with stages of industrial development |
| demography | the study of population |
| e-waste | the disposal of broken, obsolete, and worn-out electronics |
| environmental racism | the burdening of economically and socially disadvantaged communities with a disproportionate share of environmental hazards |
| environmental sociology | the sociological subfield that addresses the relationship between humans and the environment |
| exurbs | communities that arise farther out than the suburbs and are typically populated by residents of high socioeconomic status |
| fertility rate | a measure noting the actual number of children born |
| fracking | hydraulic fracturing, a method used to recover gas and oil from shale by drilling down into the earth and directing a high-pressure mixture of water, sand, and proprietary chemicals into the rock |
| gentrification | the entry of upper- and middle-class residents to city areas or communities that have been historically less affluent |
| human ecology | a functional perspective that looks at the relationship between people and their built and natural environment |
| internally displaced person | someone who fled his or her home while remaining inside the country’s borders |
| Malthusian theory | a theory asserting that population is controlled through positive checks (war, famine, disease) and preventive checks (measures to reduce fertility) |
| megalopolis | a large urban corridor that encompasses several cities and their surrounding suburbs and exurbs |
| metropolis | the area that includes a city and its suburbs and exurbs |
| mortality rate | a measure of the number of people in a population who die |
| NIMBY | “Not In My Back Yard,” the tendency of people to protest poor environmental practices when those practices will affect them directly |
| pollution | the introduction of contaminants into an environment at levels that are damaging |
| population composition | a snapshot of the demographic profile of a population based on fertility, mortality, and migration rates |
| population pyramid | a graphic representation that depicts population distribution according to age and sex |
| refugee | an individual who has been forced to leave their country in order to escape war, persecution, or natural disaster |
| sex ratio | the ratio of men to women in a given population |
| suburbs | the communities surrounding cities, typically close enough for a daily commute |
| urban sociology | the subfield of sociology that focuses on the study of urbanization |
| urbanization | the study of the social, political, and economic relationships of cities |
| white flight | the migration of economically secure white people from racially mixed urban areas toward the suburbs |
| zero population growth | a theoretical goal in which the number of people entering a population through birth or immigration is equal to the number of people leaving it via death or emigration |
| acting crowds | crowds of people who are focused on a specific action or goal |
| alternative movements | social movements that limit themselves to self-improvement changes in individuals |
| assembling perspective | a theory that credits individuals in crowds as behaving as rational thinkers and views crowds as engaging in purposeful behavior and collective action |
| casual crowds | people who share close proximity without really interacting |
| collective behavior | a noninstitutionalized activity in which several people voluntarily engage |
| conventional crowds | people who come together for a regularly scheduled event |
| crowd | a fairly large number of people who share close proximity |
| crowdsourcing | the process of obtaining needed services, ideas, or content by soliciting contributions from a large group of people |
| diagnostic framing | a social problem that is stated in a clear, easily understood manner |
| emergent norm theory | a perspective that emphasizes the importance of social norms in crowd behavior |
| expressive crowds | crowds who share opportunities to express emotions |
| flash mob | a large group of people who gather together in a spontaneous activity that lasts a limited amount of time |
| frame alignment process | using bridging, amplification, extension, and transformation as an ongoing and intentional means of recruiting participants to a movement |
| mass | a relatively large group with a common interest, even if they may not be in close proximity |
| modernization | the process that increases the amount of specialization and differentiation of structure in societies |
| motivational framing | "a call to action" Motivational framing is a strategic communication approach used to inspire and mobilize individuals by presenting issues in a way that emphasizes the importance of taking action. |
| new social movement theory | a theory that attempts to explain the proliferation of postindustrial and postmodern movements that are difficult to understand using traditional social movement theories |
| NGO | nongovernmental organizations working globally for numerous humanitarian and environmental causes |
| prognostic framing | social movements that state a clear solution and a means of implementation |
| public | an unorganized, relatively diffuse group of people who share ideas |
| reform movements | movements that seek to change something specific about the social structure |
| religious/redemptive movements | movements that work to promote inner change or spiritual growth in individuals |
| resistance movements | those who seek to prevent or undo change to the social structure |
| resource mobilization theory | a theory that explains social movements’ success in terms of their ability to acquire resources and mobilize individuals |
| revolutionary movements | movements that seek to completely change every aspect of society |
| social change | the change in a society created through social movements as well as through external factors like environmental shifts or technological innovations |
| social movement | a purposeful organized group hoping to work toward a common social goal |
| social movement industry | the collection of the social movement organizations that are striving toward similar goals |
| social movement organization | a single social movement group |
| social movement sector | the multiple social movement industries in a society, even if they have widely varying constituents and goals |
| value-added theory | a functionalist perspective theory that posits that several preconditions must be in place for collective behavior to occur |
| structural functionalism | macro/mid- the way each part of society functions together to contribute to the functioning of the whole. |
| conflict theory | macro- The way inequities and inequalities contribute to social, political, and power differences and how they perpetuate power. |
| Symbolic Interactionism | micro- The way one-on-one interactions and communications behave. |
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