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HSRM Final
| Term | Definition |
|---|---|
| Evidence-Based Management (EBM) | Making decisions using critical thinking and the best evidence available to solve an issue or problem. |
| 6 Steps of Evidence-Based Management | 1. Asking (translating issue to question), 2. Acquiring (searching evidence), 3. Appraising (judging trustworthiness), 4. Aggregating (weighing evidence), 5. Applying (incorporating into decision), 6. Assessing (evaluating outcome). |
| EDP Formula (Research Question) | Is [Exposure] related to [Disease/Outcome] in [Population]?. |
| Original Research Criteria | Research only needs one key difference from prior work: a new potential risk factor, a new disease/outcome, or a new population. |
| Internal Validity | Assessing how well a research project answered the proposed research questions by assessing the study design and results. |
| Case Series | A description of a group of individuals with the same disease or who have undergone the same procedure. |
| Cross-Sectional Study | A study that provides a snapshot of the health status of a population at one point in time to measure prevalence. |
| Case-Control Study | Compares the exposure histories of people with a disease (cases) and people without the disease (controls). |
| Odds Ratio | The key statistical measure used for Case-Control studies. |
| Cohort Study | Follows participants through time to calculate the rate at which new disease occurs (incidence) and identify risk factors. |
| Incidence Rate Ratio (Relative Risk) | The key statistical measure for Cohort studies; compares incidence in exposed vs. unexposed groups. |
| Experimental Study (RCT) | Assigns participants to intervention and control groups to test an intervention; considered the "gold standard" for causality. |
| Correlational (Ecological) Study | Uses population-level data to examine the relationship between exposure rates and disease rates. |
| Ecological Fallacy | A risk in correlational studies where assumptions about individuals are made based on population-level data. |
| Target Population | The broadest group of individuals that maybe selected for a study (e.g., all nursing homes). |
| Source Population | A well-defined subset of individuals or organizations from the target population. |
| Probability (Random) Sampling | Sampling where every individual has an equal chance of being selected (e.g., Simple random, Systematic, Stratified, Cluster). |
| Non-probability (Convenience) Sampling | Sample selected based on ease of recruiting; prone to ascertainment bias. |
| Type 1 Error (Alpha) | Occurs when study results are found to be significant (reject Null) even when a significant result does not really exist. |
| Type 2 Error (Beta) | Occurs when statistical tests find no association (accept Null) even when results are significant. |
| Secondary Analysis | A study in which a researcher analyzes data collected by another entity. |
| Nominal Variable | Categorical variables (e.g., sex, race). |
| Ordinal Variable | Ranked variables. |
| Interval Variable | A continuous variable where the value zero represents "something". |
| Ratio Variable | A continuous variable where the value zero indicates "nothing". |
| Mean | The average value; used for ratio and interval variables. |
| Mode | The most frequent value; used for categorical or ordinal variables. |
| RR > 1 Interpretation | Incidence rate was higher in the exposed than the unexposed; exposure considered a risk factor. |
| RR < 1 Interpretation | Incidence rate was lower in the exposed than the unexposed; exposure considered a protective factor. |
| Confidence Interval (CI) Overlaps 1 | Indicates no association; the finding is not statistically significant. |
| P-Value < 0.05 | Indicates a statistically significant difference among populations; the null hypothesis will be rejected. |
| Systematic Review | A synthesis approach that systematically searches for and retrieves evidence based on defined eligibility criteria. |
| Meta-Analysis | A synthesis research type that statistically combines results from multiple studies. |
| Qualitative Research | Looks at meaning, themes, and theories using tools like in-depth interviews and focus groups. |
| Annotated Bibliography | A technique to keep track of the articles for a literature review. |
| Variable | A characteristic that can be assigned one or more values (i.e. age, race, sex, or income). |
| Nuremberg Code (1947) | A set of research ethics principles mandated voluntary consent for experimental studies of humans. |
| Declaration of Helsinki (1964) | Guidelines written by the World Medical Association for physicians conducting clinical trials. |
| Belmont Report (1979) | Defined key research principles (Respect, Beneficence, Justice); foundational for the current U.S. federal policy for protecting human research participants. |
| Beneficence | The ethical principle that a study should maximize possible benefits and minimize possible harms. |
| Distributive Justice | The ethical principle requiring that the benefits and burdens of research be fairly allocated. |
| Coercion in Research | Compelling an individual to participate in a study in violation of the principles of autonomy and respect for persons. |
| Informed Consent vs. Assent | Informed consent is a voluntary decision by a competent adult; Assent is the expressed willingness to participate by a child or person deemed not legally competent. |
| Understood Consent | Evidence that a participant comprehends the study benefits, risks, and procedures prior to agreeing to participate. |
| Certificate of Confidentiality | Protects the identity of participants in sensitive studies from being subject to court orders and legal demands. |
| Recruitment vs. Retention | Recruitment is inviting people to join; Retention is keeping them in the study (preventing loss to follow-up). |
| Moran’s I Coefficient | A test for spatial autocorrelation to measure how similar one location is to nearby places. |
| Bayesian Statistics | Uses data and prior beliefs (priors) to predict the likelihood of a future outcome (posterior); assumes data are fixed and parameters vary. |
| SIR Model | A compartmental model of infection that tracks Susceptible (S), Infectious (I), and Recovered (R) individuals. |
| Data Mining | The process of examining big data sets to identify patterns and develop new knowledge. |
| QALY (Quality-Adjusted Life Year) | A metric where 1 QALY equals 1 year in perfect health; used to estimate health gained by an intervention. |
| DALY (Disability-Adjusted Life Year) | A metric measuring years of perfect health *lost* due to premature death or disability. |
| Deductive Reasoning | Moves from the general (theory) to the specific (data); typically used in quantitative research. |
| Inductive Reasoning | Moves from the specific (observation) to the general (theory); typically used in qualitative research. |
| Grounded Theory | An inductive approach using observations to develop general theories that explain human behavior; data collection/analysis occur simultaneously. |
| Ethnography | The systematic study of people and cultures in their natural environments to develop an insider's view (emic perspective). |
| Phenomenology | Seeks to understand how individuals interpret and find meaning in their own unique life experiences. |
| Bracketing | A process in phenomenology where a researcher sets aside preconceived ideas to be open to participants' meanings. |
| Ontology | The study of the nature of reality and truth (e.g., Realism vs. Relativism). |
| Epistemology | The study of knowledge; how we know what is real and true. |
| Axiology | The study of values and how they impact research. |
| Delphi Method | A structured consensus method where experts complete questionnaires and refine opinions in rounds facilitated by a moderator. |
| Photovoice | A qualitative technique where participants take photographs that they feel represent their communities and share their lived experiences. |
| Linear Regression | Used when the outcome variable is a ratio or interval variable (continuous). |
| Logistic Regression | Used when the outcome variable is binomial (dichotomous, e.g., Case/Control). |
| Dummy Variables | Created to convert categorical responses into a series of dichotomous (0/1) variables for regression analysis. |
| Confounder | A third variable associated with both exposure and outcome that distorts the relationship; not part of the causal pathway. |
| Effect Modifier | A third variable that defines groups who experience different biological responses to an exposure (e.g., a drug works better in one age group). |
| Multicollinearity | A problem in multiple regression when predictor variables are highly correlated with each other. |
| Homoscedasticity | When residuals (errors) are evenly distributed across the best-fit line; required for a valid linear regression model. |
| Survival Analysis | Evaluates the duration of time until a well-defined event (e.g., death) occurs. |
| Kaplan-Meier Plot | A graph displaying cumulative survival rates in a study population over time. |
| Independent-samples t-test | Compares the means of a ratio/interval variable in two independent populations. |
| Mann-Whitney U Test | Compares the medians of an ordinal/rank variable in two independent populations (Nonparametric alternative to t-test). |
| ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) | Compares mean values of a continuous variable across three or more independent populations. |
| Kruskal-Wallis H Test | Compares medians of an ordinal/rank variable in three or more independent populations (Nonparametric alternative to ANOVA). |
| Chi-Square Test of Independence | Compares the values of a nominal (categorical) variable in two or more independent populations. |
| McNemar's Test | Compares values of a binomial variable in matched pairs (e.g., before-and-after results for the same individuals). |
| Kurtosis | Describes how peaked or flat a distribution curve is. |
| Skewness | Describes how asymmetrical a distribution curve is. |
| Standard Error of the Mean (SE) | Adjusts standard deviation for sample size; used to calculate confidence intervals. |
| Berkson’s Bias | Occurs when hospital-based cases/controls have different comorbidity rates than the general population. |
| Healthy Worker Bias | Occurs when participants recruited from occupational populations are systematically healthier than the general population. |
| Person-Time | A denominator used in cohort studies quantifying how long participants were observed (e.g., person-years). |
| Censoring | When participants in a longitudinal study die, drop out, or are lost to follow-up, stopping their contribution to person-time. |
| Attributable Risk (Risk Difference) | The absolute difference in incidence rates between the exposed and unexposed groups. |
| Number Needed to Treat (NNT) | The number of people who must receive a treatment to prevent one unfavorable outcome; small NNT = effective. |
| Sensitivity (True Positive Rate) | The proportion of people with the disease who test positive. |
| Specificity (True Negative Rate) | The proportion of people without the disease who test negative. |
| Positive Predictive Value (PPV) | The proportion of people who test positive who actually have the disease. |
| Receiver Operating Characteristics (ROC) Curve | Plots 1-specificity vs. sensitivity to examine the accuracy of a diagnostic test at different cutoffs. |
| Factorial Design | An experimental design that tests several different interventions in various combinations within one trial. |
| Crossover Design | Participants are assigned to an active intervention first, then control (or vice versa), with a "washout" period in between. |
| Hawthorne Effect | Bias occurring when participants change their behavior because they know they are being observed. |
| Intention-to-Treat Analysis | Includes all participants in the analysis even if they were not fully compliant with their assigned protocol; measures effectiveness. |
| Case Fatality Rate (CFR) | The proportion of people with a particular disease who die as a result of that condition. |
| Proportionate Mortality Rate (PMR) | The proportion of deaths in a population attributable to a particular cause. |
| PICOT | Framework for clinical research questions: Patient/Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome, Timeframe. |
| Primary Prevention | Actions to keep an adverse health event from occurring in people who do not have the condition. |
| Secondary Prevention | Detection of health problems in asymptomatic individuals at an early stage (e.g., screening). |
| Tertiary Prevention | Interventions to reduce impairment and minimize suffering in people with symptomatic health problems. |
| IMRaD | The standard outline for scientific reports: Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion. |
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